The spiritual culture of the Eastern Slavs The diverse and colorful material culture of ancient Rus' corresponded to the bright, multifaceted, complex spiritual culture of the Eastern Slavs. Since time immemorial, folk oral poetry has developed in Rus', a wonderful

3.2. Material culture of Ancient China The formation of the material culture of Ancient China was affected by the uneven development of material production in different parts of the country. Of the traditional types of home production and craft, the most characteristic is pottery.

3.3. Spiritual Culture of Ancient China Philosophy in China emerges at the end of the third period in the history of Ancient China (“separate states”) and reaches its highest peak during the Zhanguo period (“warring kingdoms,” 403–221 BC). At that time there were six main

Material culture

Material culture usually refers to artificially created objects that allow people to optimally adapt to natural and social conditions of life.

Objects of material culture are created to satisfy various human needs and are therefore considered as values. When speaking about the material culture of a particular people, they traditionally mean such specific items as clothing, weapons, utensils, food, jewelry, housing, and architectural structures. Modern science, by studying such artifacts, is able to reconstruct the lifestyle of even long-vanished peoples, of which there is no mention in written sources.

With a broader understanding of material culture, three main elements are seen in it.

The actual objective world created by man is buildings, roads, communications, instruments, objects of art and everyday life. The development of culture is manifested in the constant expansion and complexity of the world of artifacts, the “domestication” of the human environment. It is difficult to imagine the life of a modern person without the most complex artificial devices - computers, television, mobile phones, etc., which lie at the basis of modern information culture.

Technologies are means and technical algorithms for creating and using objects of the objective world. Technologies are material because they are embodied in specific practical methods of activity.

Technical culture is the specific skills, abilities, and abilities of a person. Culture preserves these skills and abilities along with knowledge, transmitting both theoretical and practical experience from generation to generation. However, unlike knowledge, skills and abilities are formed in practical activity, usually by example. At each stage of cultural development, along with the complexity of technology, skills also become more complex.

Spiritual culture

Spiritual culture, unlike material culture, is not embodied in objects. The sphere of her existence is not things, but ideal activity associated with intellect, emotions, feelings.

The ideal forms of cultural existence do not depend on individual human opinions. This is scientific knowledge, language, established norms of morality and law, etc. Sometimes this category includes the activities of education and mass communication.

Integrating forms of spiritual culture connect disparate elements of public and personal consciousness into a coherent worldview. At the first stages of human development, myths acted as such a regulating and unifying form. In modern times, its place has been taken by religion, philosophy and, to some extent, art.

Subjective spirituality is the refraction of objective forms in the individual consciousness of each individual person. In this regard, we can talk about the culture of an individual person (his knowledge base, ability to make moral choices, religious feelings, culture of behavior, etc.).

The combination of the spiritual and material forms the common space of culture as a complex interconnected system of elements that constantly transform into each other. Thus, spiritual culture - ideas, plans of the artist - can be embodied in material things - books or sculptures, and reading books or observing objects of art is accompanied by a reverse transition - from material things to knowledge, emotions, feelings.

The quality of each of these elements, as well as the close connection between them, determine the level of moral, aesthetic, intellectual, and ultimately cultural development of any society.

The relationship between material and spiritual culture

At the same time, spiritual culture is inextricably linked with material culture. Any objects or phenomena of material culture are based on a project, embody certain knowledge and become values, satisfying human needs. In other words, material culture is always the embodiment of a certain part of spiritual culture. But spiritual culture can only exist if it is materialized, objectified, and has received one or another material embodiment. Any book, painting, musical composition, like other works of art that are part of spiritual culture, need a material carrier - paper, canvas, paints, musical instruments, etc.

Moreover, it is often difficult to understand what type of culture - material or spiritual - a particular object or phenomenon belongs to. Thus, we will most likely classify any piece of furniture as material culture. But if we are talking about a 300-year-old chest of drawers exhibited in a museum, we should talk about it as an object of spiritual culture. A book, an indisputable object of spiritual culture, can be used to light a stove. But if cultural objects can change their purpose, then criteria must be introduced to distinguish between objects of material and spiritual culture. In this capacity, one can use an assessment of the meaning and purpose of an object: an object or phenomenon that satisfies the primary (biological) needs of a person belongs to material culture; if it satisfies secondary needs associated with the development of human abilities, it is considered an object of spiritual culture.

Between material and spiritual culture there are transitional forms - signs that represent something different from what they themselves are, although this content does not relate to spiritual culture. The most famous form of sign is money, as well as various coupons, tokens, receipts, etc., used by people to indicate payment for all kinds of services. Thus, money - the general market equivalent - can be spent on buying food or clothing (material culture) or purchasing a ticket to a theater or museum (spiritual culture). In other words, money acts as a universal intermediary between objects of material and spiritual culture in modern society. But there is a serious danger in this, since money equalizes these objects among themselves, depersonalizing objects of spiritual culture. At the same time, many people have the illusion that everything has its price, that everything can be bought. In this case, money divides people and degrades the spiritual side of life.

5. Culture is one of the most important characteristics of the specifics of human life. Each individual is a complex biosocial system that functions through interaction with the environment, which is necessary for a person for his normal functioning, life and development.

Most human needs are satisfied through work. And the labor process is always carried out with the direct participation and guiding influence of human consciousness, his thinking, knowledge, feelings, and will. The system of human culture is a world of things, objects, and now the natural environment, created by man to satisfy his needs. This means that culture is the “objectified” world of human spirituality.

Culture is a product of human activity, and activity is a person’s way of being in the world. The results of human labor are constantly accumulating, and therefore the cultural system historically develops and is enriched by many generations of people. Everything achieved by humanity in legal, political, government activities, in educational systems, medical, consumer and other types of services, in science and technology, art, religion, philosophy - all this belongs to the world of human culture:

· fields and farms, industrial (factories, factories, etc.) and civil (residential buildings, institutions, etc.) buildings, transport communications (roads, pipelines, bridges, etc.), communication lines, etc. .;

· political, legal, educational and other institutions;

· scientific knowledge, artistic images, religious doctrines and philosophical systems, family culture

It is not easy to find a place on Earth that has not been developed to one degree or another by human labor, that has not been touched by the active hands of man, that has not had the stamp of the human spirit on it.

The world of culture surrounds everyone. Each person is, as it were, immersed in a sea of ​​things, objects of human culture. Moreover, an individual becomes a person insofar as he assimilates the forms of activity for the production and use of cultural objects (developed by previous generations of people). In the family, at school, at a higher educational institution, at work, in communication with other people, we master the system of objective forms of culture, “deobjectify” them for ourselves. Only on this path does a person change himself, develop his inner spiritual world, his knowledge, interests, morals, skills, abilities, worldview, values, needs, etc. The higher the degree to which a person masters the achievements of culture, the greater the contribution he can make to it. further development.

Culture appeared simultaneously with man himself, and the first cultural phenomena were the tools created by our distant ancestors.

Culture is a single, complex, integrated phenomenon of human nature, which is conditionally (according to the degree of predominance of the spiritual or material components) often divided into humanitarian and natural science cultures.

It is unlikely that today anyone will be able to describe the entire variety of cultural values ​​achieved and being achieved by humanity. We can highlight only some of the most significant areas of human culture today. Such a division is arbitrary, controversial and largely depends on the views of a particular person. Humanitarian culture.

Humanitarian culture in the modern sense is a human worldview, embodied practically and predicted theoretically, based on the belief that the World around us can be imagined in consciousness. In other words, it is a universal complex of material and spiritual values, created exclusively by the subjective (personal) consciousness of man and society. This is morality, religion, art, politics, philosophy, etc., which is included in the concept of spirituality.

Humanitarian culture is focused on universal human values, such as humanism, democracy, morality, human rights, etc. But the researcher of this culture is located within the problems under consideration. Philosophical systems, religions, and philological studies include features inherent in their creator. His whole life is often inextricably woven into the “fabric” of these systems, religions, etc. Therefore, the research methods used in the field of humanities are strikingly different from the natural sciences and come down mainly to interpretations, interpretations, and comparisons.

Teleological or finalistic explanations are of great importance in the humanities, the purpose of which is to reveal the motives and intentions in people’s activities. Interest in such explanations has increased recently; it was driven by results obtained in synergetics, ecology and other natural sciences. But even more important in the humanities is the research method associated with interpretation, which is usually called hermeneutic.

6. Culture acts as an important factor in the social renewal of society. It is sensitive to all changes occurring in society, and itself has a significant impact on social life, shaping and determining many social processes.

Modern Western sociologists assign a large role to culture in the development of modernization processes. In their opinion, a “breakthrough” of the traditional way of life in a number of countries should occur under the direct influence of their sociocultural contacts with already existing centers of market-industrial culture. In this case, it is necessary to take into account the specific historical conditions of these countries, their traditions, features of the national character, established cultural and psychological stereotypes, etc.

The special role of culture in the evolution of society was noted by the classics of world sociological thought. Suffice it to cite M. Weber’s famous work “The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism,” which showed how the ideological principles of Protestantism led to the formation of a system of value orientations, motivations and behavioral stereotypes that formed the basis of capitalist entrepreneurship and significantly contributed to the formation of the bourgeois era.

The role of culture as a factor of social change especially increases during the period of social reforms. This can be clearly seen in the example of our country.

In these conditions, the development of a new cultural policy becomes especially important. Cultural policy is understood as a set of measures to regulate the development of spiritual and value aspects of social life. Culture plays the role of forming value-oriented, optimally organized and socially effective activities.

7. The post-industrial state of human civilization is rightfully associated with the development of the information society - a society whose level is decisively determined by the quantity and quality of accumulated information, its freedom and accessibility. The emergence of the information society is inextricably linked with the awareness of the fundamental role of information in social development, consideration of such phenomena as information resources, new information technologies, and informatization in a broad sociocultural context.

The formation of the information society required ensuring the adequacy of education to the dynamic changes occurring in nature and society, the entire human environment, the increased volume of information, and the rapid development of new information technologies. Of particular importance in the information society is the organization of information education and the improvement of the information culture of the individual.

Today there is every reason to talk about the formation of a new information culture, which can become an element of the general culture of mankind. This will include knowledge about the information environment, the laws of its functioning, and the ability to navigate information flows. Information culture is not yet an indicator of general, but rather professional culture, but over time it will become an important factor in the development of each individual. The concept of “information culture” characterizes one of the facets of culture associated with the information aspect of people’s lives. The role of this aspect in the information society is constantly increasing; and today the totality of information flows around each person is so large, diverse and ramified that it requires him to know the laws of the information environment and the ability to navigate information flows. Otherwise, he will not be able to adapt to life in new conditions, in particular, to changes in social structures, the consequence of which will be a significant increase in the number of people working in the field of information activities and services.

Currently, there are many definitions of information culture. Let's look at some of them.

In a broad sense, information culture is understood as a set of principles and real mechanisms that ensure the positive interaction of ethnic and national cultures, their connection into the common experience of humanity.

In a narrow sense - optimal ways of handling signs, data, information and presenting them to interested consumers to solve theoretical and practical problems; mechanisms for improving technical environments for the production, storage and transmission of information; development of a training system, preparing a person for the effective use of information tools and information.

The information culture of mankind has been shaken by information crises at various times. One of the most significant quantitative information crises led to the emergence of writing. Oral methods of preserving knowledge did not ensure complete preservation of the growing volumes of information and recording of information on a material medium, which gave rise to a new period of information culture - documentary. It included a culture of communication with documents: extracting fixed knowledge, encoding and recording information; documentary search. Handling information has become easier, the way of thinking has undergone changes, but oral forms of information culture not only have not lost their significance, but have also been enriched by a system of relationships with written ones.

The next information crisis brought to life computer technologies that modified the information medium and automated some information processes.

Modern information culture has absorbed all its previous forms and combined them into a single tool. As a special aspect of social life, it acts as a subject, means and result of social activity, reflects the nature and level of practical activity of people. This is the result of the subject’s activity and the process of preserving what was created, distributing and consuming cultural objects.

Currently, a basis is being created for the formation of a contradiction between the category of individuals whose information culture is formed under the influence of information technology and reflects new connections and relationships of the information society, and the category of individuals whose information culture is determined by traditional approaches. This creates different levels of its quality with the same expenditure of effort and time, entails objective injustice, which is associated with a decrease in the possibilities of creative manifestation of some subjects compared to others.

Related information.

The concept of education methods. In a complex and dynamic pedagogical process, the teacher has to solve countless typical and original educational tasks, which are always tasks of social management, since they are aimed at the harmonious development of the individual. As a rule, these problems have many unknowns, with a complex and variable composition of initial data and possible solutions. In order to confidently predict the desired result and make error-free, scientifically based decisions, the teacher must be professionally proficient in educational methods.

Educational methods should be understood as methods of professional interaction between a teacher and students in order to solve educational problems. Reflecting the dual nature of the pedagogical process, methods are one of those mechanisms that ensure interaction between the teacher and students. This interaction is not built on parity principles, but under the sign of the leading and guiding role of the teacher, who acts as the leader and organizer of the pedagogically appropriate life and activities of students.

The method of education breaks down into its constituent elements (parts, details), which are called methodological techniques. In relation to the method, the techniques are of a private, subordinate nature. They do not have an independent pedagogical task, but are subordinate to the task pursued by this method. The same methodological techniques can be used in different methods. Conversely, the same method for different teachers may include different techniques.

Educational methods and methodological techniques are closely related to each other; they can make mutual transitions and replace each other in specific pedagogical situations. In some circumstances, the method acts as an independent way to solve a pedagogical problem, in others - as a technique that has a particular purpose. Conversation, for example, is one of the main methods of shaping consciousness, attitudes and beliefs. At the same time, it can become one of the main methodological techniques used at various stages of the implementation of the training method.

Educational techniques (sometimes educational techniques) in domestic pedagogy are considered as specific operations of interaction between the educator and the student (for example, creating an emotional mood during an educational conversation) and are determined by the purpose of their use.

• this is an individual, pedagogically designed action of the teacher, aimed at consciousness, feelings, behavior to solve pedagogical problems;
• This is a particular change, an addition made to the general method of education, corresponding to the specific conditions of the educational process.

Educational means are objects of material and spiritual culture that are used in solving pedagogical problems.

Scheme of a functional-operational approach to educational methods:

Classification of education methods

The creation of a method is a response to the educational task posed by life. In the pedagogical literature you can find a description of a large number of methods that allow you to achieve almost any goal. There are so many methods and especially different versions (modifications) of methods that have been accumulated that only their ordering and classification helps to understand them and choose ones that are adequate to the goals and real circumstances.

Classification of methods is a system of methods built on a certain basis. Classification helps to discover the general and specific, essential and random, theoretical and practical in methods and thereby contributes to their conscious choice and the most effective application. Based on the classification, the teacher not only clearly understands the system of methods, but also better understands the purpose, characteristic features of various methods and their modifications.

Any scientific classification begins with determining the general foundations and identifying features for ranking the objects that make up the subject of classification. Considering the method, there are many such signs - a multidimensional phenomenon. A separate classification can be made according to any general characteristic. In practice, this is what they do, obtaining various systems of methods.

In modern pedagogy, dozens of classifications are known, some of which are more suitable for solving practical problems, while others are of only theoretical interest. In most systems of methods, the logical basis of classification is not clearly expressed. This explains the fact that in practically significant classifications, not one, but several important and general aspects of the method are taken as a basis.

By nature, education methods are divided into persuasion, exercise, encouragement and punishment. In this case, the general feature “nature of the method” includes the focus, applicability, peculiarity and some other aspects of the methods. Closely related to this classification is another system of general methods of education, which interprets the nature of the methods in a more general way. It includes methods of persuasion, organizing activities, and stimulating the behavior of schoolchildren. In the classification of I. S. Maryenko, such groups of education methods are named as explanatory-reproductive, problem-situational, methods of training and exercise, stimulation, inhibition, guidance, self-education.

Based on the results, methods of influencing the student can be divided into two classes:

1. Influences that create moral attitudes, motives, relationships, forming ideas, concepts, ideas.

2. Influences that create habits that determine one or another type of behavior.
At present, the most objective and convenient classification of educational methods is based on orientation - an integrative characteristic that includes in unity the target, content and procedural aspects of educational methods.

In accordance with this characteristic, three groups of education methods are distinguished:

1. Methods of forming the consciousness of the individual.

2. Methods of organizing activities and forming experience of social behavior.

3. Methods of stimulating behavior and activity.

Classification of education methods and their characteristics.

Classification is a system of methods built on a certain basis.

Currently, the most objective and convenient classification of educational methods is based on the orientation of G.I. Shchukina.

There are 3 groups of education methods:

a) Methods for forming personality consciousness:

Belief;

Story;

Explanation;

Clarification;

Ethical conversation;

Suggestion;

Instruction;

b) Methods of organizing activities and developing experience of social behavior:

Exercises;

Accustoming;

Pedagogical requirement;

Public opinion;

Order;

Educational situations.

V) Methods of stimulating behavior activity:

Competitions;

Encouragement;

Punishment.

A story on an ethical topic is a vivid, emotional presentation of specific facts and events that have moral content that affects feelings; the story helps students understand and internalize the meaning of moral assessments and norms of behavior.

Explanation is a method of emotional, verbal influence on students. An important feature is the focus of the impact on a given group or individual. It is used only when the student really needs to explain something, to somehow influence his consciousness

Suggestion, penetrating imperceptibly into the psyche, affects a person’s personality.

Attitudes and motives for activity are created. They are used when the student must accept a certain attitude. (used to enhance the impact of other parenting methods.

Ethical conversation is a method of systematic and consistent discussion of knowledge, involving the participation of educators and students. The teacher listens and takes into account the opinions of the interlocutors.

The purpose of an ethical conversation is to deepen and strengthen moral concepts, generalize and consolidate knowledge, and form a system of moral views and beliefs.

An example is an educational method of exceptional power. Its effect is based on the fact that phenomena perceived by sight are quickly and easily imprinted in consciousness. An example provides specific role models and thereby actively shapes consciousness, feelings, and active activity. The psychological basis of the example is imitation. Thanks to it, people master social and moral experience.

Exercise is a practical method of education, the existence of which consists in repeatedly performing the required actions, bringing them to automatism. The result of the exercises is stable personality traits, skills and habits.

The effectiveness of the exercise depends on:

Taxonomy of exercises;

Availability and passivity;

Repetition frequencies;

Control and correction;

Personal characteristics of the pupil;

Place and time of the exercise;

A combination of individual, group and collective forms of exercise;

Motivation and stimulation (you need to start the exercise as early as possible; the younger the body, the faster habits take root in it).

Requirement is a method of education with the help of which behavioral skills, expressed in personal relationships, stimulate or inhibit certain activities of the pupil and manifest certain qualities in him.

According to presentation form:

Indirect.

Indirect ones can be:

Requirement advice;

The requirement is in a playful form;

Requirement by trust;

Requirement request;

Requirement hint;

Requirement approval.

According to the results of education:

Positive;

Negative.

By presentation method:

Direct;

Indirect.

Habituation is intensively performed exercises. It is used when it is necessary to quickly and at a high level formulate the required quality. It is often accompanied by painful processes and causes dissatisfaction. It is used at all stages of the educational process.

Assignment - with its help, schoolchildren are taught to take positive actions. The assignment is given in order to develop the necessary qualities.

Method of educational situation - situations should not be far-fetched. Situations must be natural. Surprise plays an important role.

Encouragement - expresses a positive assessment of the students’ actions. It reinforces positive skills and habits. The action of encouragement is based on the arousal of positive emotions. It instills confidence and increases responsibility.

Types of incentives:

OK;

Encouragement;

Praise;

Gratitude;

Rewarding with a certificate or gift.

You need to be careful with rewards so as not to overdo it.

Competition is the natural need of schoolchildren to compete and prioritize the development of qualities necessary for a person and society. By competing, a student develops physical and moral qualities. The effectiveness of the competition increases when its goals, objectives and conditions are determined by the schoolchildren themselves, who also sum up the results and determine the winners.

Punishment is a method of pedagogical influence, which should prevent undesirable actions, slow down schoolchildren, causing a feeling of guilt towards themselves and others.

Types of punishment:

Associated with the imposition of additional responsibilities;

Deprivation or restriction of rights;

Expressing moral censure and condemnation.

Forms of punishment:

Disapproval;

Comment;

Warning;

Discussion at the meeting;

Suspension from classes;

Exception.

The power of punishment increases if it comes from or is supported by the collective.