Star news
The primacy of creating a scientific psychological concept belongs to. Psychological concept of C. G. Jung. The main tasks of psychology are
Depth psychology - (Depth psychology; Tiefenpsychologie) - the general name of psychological movements that put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bthe independence of the psyche from consciousness and strive to substantiate and explore this independent psyche as such, in its dynamic status.
There are classic and modern depth psychology. Classical depth psychology includes the psychological concepts of Freud, Adler and Jung - psychoanalysis, individual psychology and analytical psychology.
Psychoanalysis.
Psychoanalysis is a psychotherapeutic method developed by Freud S. The fundamental concept that unites the teachings of Freud with the views of Adler (Adler A.) and Jung (Jung C. G.), as well as neo-psychoanalysts, is the idea of unconscious mental processes and the psychotherapeutic methods used to analyze them.
Psychoanalysis includes theories of general mental development, the psychological origin of neuroses and psychoanalytic therapy, thus being a complete and holistic system.
According to psychoanalytic theory, mental activity is of two types: conscious and unconscious. The first type of activity is the "immediately given" which "cannot be more fully explained by any description." Preconscious means thoughts that are unconscious at a certain point in time, but are not repressed and are therefore capable of becoming conscious. The unconscious is the part of the soul in which mental processes are unconscious in functioning, i.e. memories, fantasies, desires, etc., the existence of which can only be implied or which become conscious only after overcoming resistance. In the 1920s Freud renamed the unconscious the Id and the conscious the Ego. The Unconscious is a structure with specific properties: “Liberation from mutual contradiction, the primary process, timelessness and the replacement of external reality by the psychic - all these are characteristic features that we hope to discover in the processes belonging to the System of the Unconscious.”
Historically the concept Eid arises from the concept of the unconscious. In the course of development, the Id precedes the Ego, that is, the mental apparatus begins its existence as an undifferentiated Id, part of which then develops into a structured Ego. The id contains within itself everything that is present from birth, mainly what is inherent in the constitution, therefore, the instincts that are generated by the somatic organization and which find their first psychic expression here in the id. According to Freud, “The id is the dark, inaccessible part of our personality. We approach the understanding of the id through comparison, calling it chaos, a cauldron full of seething impulses. We imagine that at its limit the id is open to the somatic, absorbing instinctive needs that find their psychic expression in it. Thanks to drives, the id is filled with energy, but has no organization..."
Ego- this is a structural and topographical concept relating to the organized parts of the mental apparatus, contrasted with the unorganized id. "The ego is a part of the id that has been modified under the direct influence of the external world... The ego represents what can be called reason or common sense in contrast to the id, which contains passions. In its relation to the id, the ego is like a horseman who must restrain the superior strength of the horse, with this difference that the rider tries to do this with his own strength, while the Ego uses borrowed forces for this purpose." Ego development involves growth and acquisition of functions that enable the individual to increasingly control his impulses, act independently of parental figures, and control his environment.
Super Ego- this is the part of the Ego in which introspection, self-criticism and other reflective activities develop, where parental introjects are localized. The superego includes unconscious elements, and the instructions and inhibitions emanating from it originate in the past of the subject and may be in conflict with his present values. “The child’s super-ego is built, in fact, not according to the example of the parents, but according to the parental super-ego; it is filled with the same content, becomes the bearer of tradition, all those values preserved in time that continue to exist along this path through generations.”
Freud concludes that "large parts of the ego and superego may remain unconscious, and are usually unconscious. This means that the personality knows nothing of their content and requires effort to make them conscious to himself."
In his work “The Ego and the Id,” Freud S. wrote: “Psychoanalysis is a tool that enables the Ego to achieve victory over the Id.” He believed that in psychoanalysis the main efforts are aimed at “strengthening the Ego, making it more independent of the Super-Ego, expanding the scope of perception and strengthening its organization... Where the Id was, there will be the Ego.” Freud saw the goal of psychoanalysis as making the unconscious conscious; he argued that “the business of analysis is to provide, as far as possible, good conditions for the functioning of the ego.”
The key, defining concepts of psychoanalysis are: free association, transference and interpretation.
Free associations.
When used as a technical term, "Free association" means the patient's way of thinking, encouraged by the analyst's injunction to obey the "ground rule", that is, to express his thoughts freely, without concealment, without trying to concentrate; starting either from some word, number, dream image, idea, or spontaneously (Rycroft Ch., Laplanche J., Pontalis J.B., 1996).
The Rule of Free Association is the mainstay of all psychoanalytic technique and is often defined in the literature as the "basic, fundamental" rule.
Transfer.
Transfer (transfer, transfer). The patient’s transference to the psychoanalyst of the feelings he experienced for other people in early childhood, i.e., the projection of early childhood relationships and desires onto another person. The initial sources of Transference reactions are significant people in the early years of a child's life. Usually these are parents, educators with whom love, comfort and punishment are associated, as well as brothers, sisters and rivals. Transference reactions may be conditioned by later relationships with people, and even contemporaries, but then analysis will reveal that these later sources are secondary and themselves originated from significant persons of early childhood.
Interpretation.
Interpretation (lat. interpretatio). In a broad sense, interpretation means explaining the unclear or hidden meaning for the patient of certain aspects of his experiences and behavior, and in psychodynamic psychotherapy it is a certain technique for interpreting the meaning of a symptom, an associative chain of ideas, dreams, fantasies, resistance, transference, etc. At the same time, the psychotherapist makes unconscious phenomena consciously, using your own unconscious, empathy and intuition, as well as experience and theoretical knowledge. Interpretation is the most important psychoanalytic procedure. If free associations are the main way of obtaining the most important material from the patient, then I. is the main tool for analyzing this material and translating the unconscious into the conscious.
Individual psychology.
Created by Alfred Adler (Adler A.), I. p. was a major step forward in understanding man and the uniqueness of his unique life path. It was Individual Psychology that anticipated many of the provisions of humanistic psychology, existentialism, Gestalt therapy, etc.
Individual psychology includes such concepts as: life goals, lifestyle, apperception scheme, sense of the social (Gemeinschaftsgefuhl) and the associated need for social cooperation, selfhood. Adler believed that life goals that motivate a person’s behavior in the present, orienting him towards development and achieving the fulfillment of desires in the future, are rooted in his past experience, and in the present are supported by the actualization of a sense of danger and insecurity. The life goal of each individual is made up of his personal experience, values, relationships, and characteristics of the individual himself. Many life goals were formed in early childhood and remain unconscious for the time being. Adler himself believed that his choice of becoming a doctor was influenced by frequent illnesses in childhood and the associated fear of death.
Life goals serve to protect the individual against feelings of helplessness, a means of connecting a perfect and powerful future with an anxious and uncertain present. When the feeling of inferiority, so characteristic of patients with neuroses in Adler’s understanding, is expressed, life goals can acquire an exaggerated, unrealistic character (the author discovered mechanisms of compensation and overcompensation). A patient with neuroses often experiences a very significant discrepancy between conscious and unconscious goals, as a result of which he ignores the possibility of real achievements and prefers fantasies about personal superiority.
Lifestyle is the unique way that a person chooses to realize his life goals. It is an integrated style of adapting to and interacting with life. A symptom of a disease or a personality trait can only be understood in the context of a lifestyle, as a unique expression of it. That is why Adler’s words are so relevant now: “The individual as an integral being cannot be removed from his connections with life... For this reason, experimental tests, which deal at best with private aspects of an individual’s life, can tell us little about his character ..."
As part of his lifestyle, each person creates a subjective idea of himself and the world, which Adler called the apperception scheme and which determines his behavior. The apperception scheme, as a rule, has the ability to self-confirm, or self-reinforce. For example, a person's initial experience of fear will lead him to perceive the surrounding situation with which he comes into contact as even more threatening.
By the sense of sociality, Adler understood “the feeling of human solidarity, the connection of man with man... an expansion of the sense of camaraderie in human society.” In a certain sense, all human behavior is social, since, he said, we develop in a social environment and our personalities are formed socially. The sense of community includes a sense of kinship with all humanity and connectedness with the whole of life.
Based on Darwin's theory of evolution, Adler believed that the ability and need to cooperate are one of the most important forms of human adaptation to the environment. Only the cooperation of people and the consistency of their behavior provide them with a chance to overcome real inferiority or the feeling of it. The blocked need for social cooperation and the accompanying feeling of inadequacy underlie the inability to adapt to life and neurotic behavior.
The author does not classify the concept of self, like many categories of psychoanalysis, as operational. The Self, in his understanding, is identical to the creative force with the help of which a person directs his needs, gives them form and a meaningful purpose.
Analytical psychology.
The basic concepts and methods of Analytical Psychology were formulated by the author in the Tavistock Lectures (London, 1935). The structure of human mental existence, according to Jung, includes two fundamental spheres - consciousness and the mental unconscious. Psychology is first and foremost the science of consciousness. It is also the science of the content and mechanisms of the unconscious. Since it is not yet possible to directly study the unconscious, since its nature is unknown, it is expressed by consciousness and in terms of consciousness. Consciousness is largely a product of perception and orientation in the external world, however, according to Jung, it does not consist entirely of sensory data, as psychologists of past centuries claim. The author also disputed Freud's position of removing the unconscious from consciousness. He put the question in the opposite way: everything that arises in consciousness is initially not obviously conscious, and awareness follows from an unconscious state. In consciousness, Jung distinguished between ectopsychic and endopsychic functions of orientation. The author attributed the orientation system, which deals with external factors received through the senses, to ectopsychic functions; to endopsychic - a system of connections between the content of consciousness and processes in the unconscious. Ectopsychic functions include:
- Feel
- thinking,
- feelings,
- intuition.
If sensation says that something exists, then thinking determines what this thing is, that is, it introduces a concept; feeling informs about the value of this thing. However, information about a thing is not exhausted by this knowledge, since it does not take into account the category of time. A thing has its past and future. Orientation regarding this category is carried out by intuition, premonition. Where concepts and assessments are powerless, we depend entirely on the gift of intuition. The listed functions are presented in each individual with varying degrees of expression. The dominant function determines the psychological type. Jung deduced a pattern of subordination of ectopsychic functions: when the thinking function is dominant, the feeling function is subordinate, when sensation is dominant, intuition is subordinate, and vice versa. The dominant functions are always differentiated, we are “civilized” in them and supposedly have freedom of choice. Subordinate functions, on the contrary, are associated with archaic personality and lack of control. The conscious sphere of the psyche is not exhausted by ectopsychic functions; its endopsychic side includes:
- memory,
- subjective components of conscious functions,
- affects,
- infestation or invasion.
Memory allows you to reproduce the unconscious, to make connections with what has become subconscious - suppressed or discarded. Subjective components, affects, intrusions play to an even greater extent the role assigned to endopsychic functions - they are the very means through which unconscious content reaches the surface of consciousness. The center of consciousness, according to Jung, is the Ego-complex of mental factors, constructed from information about one’s own body, existence and from certain sets (series) of memory. The ego has enormous energy of attraction - it attracts both the contents of the unconscious and impressions from the outside. Only that which is in connection with the Ego is realized. The ego complex manifests itself in volitional effort. If the ectopsychic functions of consciousness are controlled by the Ego complex, then in the endopsychic system only memory, and then to a certain extent, is under the control of the will. The subjective components of conscious functions are controlled to an even lesser extent. Affects and intrusions are completely controlled by “force alone.” The closer we are to the unconscious, the less the Ego complex exercises control over mental function; in other words, we can approach the unconscious only due to the property of endopsychic functions not being controlled by will. What has reached the endopsychic sphere becomes conscious and determines our idea of ourselves. But man is not a static structure, he is constantly changing. The part of our personality that remains in the shadows, is still unconscious, is in its infancy. Thus, the potentials inherent in the personality are contained in the shadow, unconscious side. The unconscious sphere of the psyche, which is not amenable to direct observation, manifests itself in its products that cross the threshold of consciousness, which Jung divides into 2 classes. The first contains cognizable material of purely personal origin. Jung called this class of contents the subconscious mind, or the personal unconscious, consisting of elements that organize the human personality as a whole. The author defined another class of contents that do not have an individual origin as the collective unconscious. These contents belong to a type that embodies the properties not of a separate mental being, but of all humanity as a certain common whole, and, thus, are collective in nature. These collective patterns, or types, or exemplars, Jung called archetypes. An archetype is a certain formation of an archaic nature, including both in form and content mythological motifs. Mythological motifs express the psychological mechanism of introversion of the conscious mind into the deep layers of the unconscious psyche. The sphere of the archetypal mind is the core of the unconscious. The contents of the collective unconscious are not controlled by the will; They are not only universal, but also autonomous. Jung offers 3 methods for reaching the realm of the unconscious: the method of word associations, dream analysis and the method of active imagination. The word association test, which brought Jung wide fame, requires the subject to respond to a stimulus word as quickly as possible with the first answer word that comes to his mind.
In principle, every psychological theory is, first of all, an image of a person. In this case, we will focus on approaches in which human problems are consciously emphasized.
B.S. Bratus writes that Russian psychology is at a crossroads. Currently, three approaches to man have taken shape in it: humanitarian psychology, moral psychology, Christian psychology. In contrast to humanistic psychology, Bratus sees the core of the new humanitarian psychology in the fact that it abandons the natural science paradigm and sets as its task the gathering together of humanitarian views on man. Moreover, the idea of personality is an organ, an instrument for such gathering, building a person. The very construction of man, his development, depends on the norm of his development. Therefore, the main question is: does human development lead to the acquisition of human essence, to the correspondence of a person to his concept.
Bratus connects this search for human nature with Christian psychology, which is based on the Christian image of man. Psychology itself is seen as moral psychology. Moral development is understood by him as the norm, as the main condition for a healthy personality. Christian psychology adds to the concept of man the presence of certain absolute foundations for moral choice, giving it not only human, but also divine significance, considering man as the Image of God, and normal development as a real experience of imitation of Christ.
Psychologists such as V.I. also adhere to the Orthodox orientation. Slobodchikov, R.B. Vvedensky, S.L. Vorobiev. N.L. tries to maintain Catholic practice in his experiments. Muskhelishvili (more precisely, he practices the experience of Jesuit education).
Concept by V.I. Slobodchikova seems to be one of the most developed and detailed. Moreover, it is this concept that is focused on the anthropological version of developmental psychology. The author identifies a number of basic paradigmatic attitudes in human psychology:
- Naturalism, the conceptual structure of which is determined by the relationship between man and nature, organism and environment. Man is determined and natural. Human development is understood as the growth of ready-made forms, ready-made natural data.
- Sociomorphism. It is determined by the relationship between man and society. Man is a social individual with roles and functions.
- Epistemology. Development is understood as the formation of cognitive structures.
- Culturecentrism. Human development is understood as his mastery of cultural forms through sign mediation.
- Theologism. Development is understood as the search and formation of the image of God in man. Human development is the realization of the image of God
In recent years, Slobodchikov notes, along with the listed paradigms, another, universal paradigm is emerging - anthropological. In this case, human psychology acts not as a simple sum of knowledge about a person, but as a new orientation, a new angle of view on a person and his place in the world. The essence of this turn, according to the author, is a reorientation to the problem of the formation of human subjectivity. Developmental psychology is the history of the development of human subjectivity. Moreover, Slobodchikov emphasizes, any development is problematic. It does not exist as a ready-made, natural quality. The object of development is not naturally given. It is specially designed. A person always exists with another (being-with-another, according to M. Heidegger, Mit-anderen-Sein). A person acquires in his development a living community, co-existence. The latter is what develops, the result of which is one or another form of subjectivity. Development and co-existence are two main categories in the anthropological paradigm. The anthropological paradigm, the author believes, explains all other paradigms in human psychology.
B.D. approaches the problem of human development differently. Elkonin. The original idea of his concept is that the classical pillars of development have ceased to exist. We cannot rely on a certain culture as a given, as a certain framework. We do not “grow into” the culture. We ourselves are this cultural sphere, we ourselves are its “organs”, its living “motors”.
The basis of the new ontology B.D. Elkonin lays down three basic categories of development (which were developed in the tradition of Neoplatonism, in particular in the philosophy of A.F. Losev as a cultural reflection of myth): the concepts of ideal form, event, mediation.
The ideal form is the image of a perfect subject, the image of a perfect, cultured adult, the reconstruction of which is the main event in the cultural development of man. The fundamental thing for Elkonin, naturally, is not the statement of the crisis in culture itself, but the need to recreate the ideal form.
In Elkonin’s ontology of development, the main one is the idea of recreation, the revival by the subject of the original state, which can be described as being in a myth. The form of reconstruction must correspond to this state. The latter is represented by a sample and a ritual. The key figure in this act is the mediator, the bearer of the archetype, demonstrating and bearing the ideal form, which represents the embodiment of the myth.
The main event of subjectivity lies in the act of mediation. In fact, everyone who claims to be a subject of development must become a mediator.
The entire living, breathing ontology of development is built on these acts of reconstruction, which determines new guidelines in a new cultural situation.
Let us dwell on a number of works by foreign authors discussing similar problems of human psychology and developmental psychology, working at the intersection of psychological and cultural anthropology.
From the entire body of research, we selected those that relate, as it seems to me, to the main problem - the problem of the meeting of culture and man. From this point of view, we will not find anything significant either in E. Erikson or in J. Piaget. But a lot of interesting things in this regard can be found in the works of M. Cole and other American authors, followers of L.S. Vygotsky.
Briefly, the key points of their concepts are as follows:
- At his birth, a specific individual does not end up in an “airless” social space, but in a very specific cultural environment. Previous generations leave behind an environment filled with tools, artificial means, devices, embodied in material form (artifacts).
- Culture is not just a kind of “container environment” consisting of these artifacts and enveloping each individual. Culture is structured in a certain way by them. M. Wartofsky proposes a three-level hierarchy of artifacts.
Secondary artifacts are described and coded methods and norms for using these primary artifacts. In principle, these are techniques and technologies, various “cultural schemes” and “models”.
Tertiary artifacts include “imaginary worlds,” worlds of possibilities, playful forms, and human creativity in various forms.
- Artifacts are not just some material carriers of experience external to a particular individual, in which that experience is encoded in a certain way. They are cultural tools that determine the behavior of the individual, i.e. act as “mediators”, intermediaries. This is what our domestic authors also talk about as the key idea of cultural-historical theory. In a word, artifacts are not just things and signs. They turn into tools, into means of cultural development. At the same time, Cole argues that the first theorists of the cultural-historical concept “did not establish a connection between the concept of individual mediated action and culture.” By the way, in trying to figure out this connection, he relied mainly on American cultural anthropology.
- So, culture is not just a structured and hierarchical development environment. It is necessary to highlight those key structures and mechanisms that in a certain way influence the cultural development of the individual. R. D. Andrade proposed to isolate certain cultural units of organization of all cultural material and call them “cultural schemes” and “cultural models”. They are patterns that are reproduced by each individual. At the same time, he points out that the artifact embodies the unity of the material and the ideal More precisely, a material object is the embodiment of an idea, exactly according to Plato.
/\
and Having a rich set of scenarios and models, cultural schemes, it is possible to compile the most complete library of trajectories of human development and the development of new generations. This set of cultural tools (or script workbench) can enrich the arsenal of predictions and diagnostics of cultural development.
- The task of a cultured adult is to give this “toolkit” to the child. And the latter’s task is to decide which cultural scheme and under what circumstances he should choose as a scenario. Thus, we are half a step away from the problem of cultural age. Nelson points out that children grow up within a circle of events controlled by adults, therefore, among “formatted” activities that occur within the framework of adult scenarios. In this sense, the acquisition of scripts is the most important moment for the acquisition of culture, and therefore for growing up, i.e. cultural development.
- The adult format of life has its own set of scenarios for adult behavior. Mastering them is growing up, i.e. joining the adult community. However, then it is necessary to clarify the basic models of interaction between adult and child societies and the very concepts of “adulthood” and “childhood”.
- So, formats and scenarios lie, as it were, outside the boundaries of a specific individual in a culture.
- An artifact-mediator is identified as a unit of culture, ideally, i.e. sign-symbolically, and a materially expressed object-tool. Artifacts, writes M. Cole, do not determine thinking and activity, but they “provide polysemic resources for the process of constructing activity.”
- Thus, the world into which a maturing individual enters is a formatted world, a world of scenarios and patterns of activity. Once internalized in adult behavior, these scripts are transformed into specific cultural forms of proactive behavior. These primarily include the scenarios described by E. Bern. Cole calls such a mechanism of anticipatory, warning behavior the mechanism of “prolepsis” (Latin prolepsis - anticipation), i.e. “the idea of a future act of development as existing in the present.”
- M. Cole extended the idea of the mediating function of an artifact to learning and developed the technique of “smart mediated reading with questions.” He and his colleagues define “the act of reading as an extension of the ability to mediate one’s interaction with the environment.”
work by interpreting printed text." This technique was translated by S. Smirnov and published in a separate publication. Modern
Artifacts, roles, and reading scripts constitute the structural environment for reading development and at the same time act as tools that are used in teaching reading.
It must be said that M. Cole has accumulated a wealth of experience in cross-cultural research. For many years he worked on them in Africa and Mexico, and participated in a number of projects in schools and colleges in the United States. In 1978, he founded the Laboratory for the Comparative Study of Cognition.
In conclusion, let us return to Cole’s thesis that cultural-historical psychology, represented by its founders, has not bridged the gap between the individual and culture. The author believes that his appeal to American cultural anthropology is due to the fact that “the shortcoming of the cultural-historical approach at present is its inability to provide an adequate description of how natural and cultural lines of development, phylogeny and cultural history, are combined and intertwined in ontogenesis.” .
It is advisable to apply this remark to developments in domestic child and developmental psychology. Often in these studies, even those conducted in the spirit of cultural-historical theory, culture stands separately, and the social context also stands separately. And the individual with his psychologisms is separate. In this sense, there is no need to talk about the reality of cultural development. Until a unified map of cultural development is built, which could become a configurator for the development of any subject (two individuals, a social group, an ethnic group, a civilization), until then it is difficult to talk about cultural development and cultural age.
The pathos of all the studies of M. Cole and his colleagues is as follows. Culture is a garden in which the researcher is the gardener tending his creations. And this garden, rich and diverse, the researcher must create, create. It doesn't exist ready-made. The researcher practically creates this cultural development environment and constructs it. It must be artificially created as multi-level, hierarchical, multi-purpose. And in it the researcher lives with his children and colleagues. Only then is it possible to overcome the gap between philosophy and psychology, phylogeny and ontogenesis, the individual and culture.
Among the works of domestic authors working at the intersection of activity psychology and cultural-historical psychology, it is necessary to highlight, first of all, the works of V.P. Zinchenko. In the 90s, he proposed the idea of “poetic anthropology”, the idea of “organic psychology”. One of his key ideas is the idea of the formation of a functional organ as a new formation in a person, from which (organs) the “mental organism” is formed (this is a continuation of the traditions of A.A. Ukhtomsky and L.S. Vygotsky). His undoubted merit is the bold introduction into the psychology of the language of the living word, quite working metaphors, such as “living knowledge”, “living movement”, “chronotope of living movement”.
Another significant figure for modern psychological anthropology is F.E. Vasilyuk. He, in particular, proposed a certain synthesis of Orthodox psychopractice, “synergy” psychology. At the same time, the emphasis is placed on the need for a new anthropology. Psychology and 7
psychotherapy cannot be anthropologically “neutral” and not notice the energy of what power they mobilize in a person, “unfreezing” another archetype and releasing it, like a genie, into social space. Psychotherapy is impossible without the idea of human deification, i.e. without Christian anthropology. This type of psychotherapy is called synergy. It brings about the collaboration of God and man. In this case, there is a roll call of the ideas of F.E. Vasilyuk and S.S. Horuzhego.
Let us also note the works of A. A. Puzyrey, one of the most subtle experts in psychological anthropology L.S. Vygotsky. Bubbles distinguishes between the “psychology of secrets” and the “psychology of secrets.” The first is psychology with a pre-ready key to a person. He is clear and predictable in it. A similar diagram and projection of a person is present in every major concept. At the same time, there is a psychology of mystery; here a person is not given or given, he always remains a mystery, a problem, an open prospect. And every researcher faces the problem of choosing: to create a psychology of secret or a psychology of mystery.
As for the current situation, A.A. Bubbles notes the following. It is necessary for psychology to deal with real human problems. Psychology must deal with the “complete” man, with the man of the Path (in the spirit of the psychology of mystery). For the person himself, psychology should become a personal experience of spiritual work.
(To be continued)
FACULTY OF HUMAN PHILOSOPHY
The faculty has seven departments: philosophy, history of philosophy, philosophical and psychological anthropology, aesthetics and ethics, public relations, theory and methodology of philosophical and cultural education. A high level of training is provided by 32 doctors and more than 40 candidates of science.
Over ten years of development, several scientific centers and laboratories have been formed and are actively operating at the faculty: the public relations center, the educational and practical laboratory of PR, the educational and scientific laboratory at the department of artistic culture, the center for practical aesthetics "Eidos", the center for applied ethics (professional ethics of PR ).
Let us list the main topics of research development:
- man as a subject of philosophical and scientific knowledge,
- philosophical images of man and the world: history and modernity,
- modern philosophical anthropology,
- moral and aesthetic values of a person,
- philosophical and cultural anthropology,
- PR in the field of communications and education,
- person in the system of public communications.
©2004V.A. RABOSH, V.I. STRELCHENKO
Section III
PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PEDAGOGICAL
BASICS OF PROFESSIONAL
EDUCATION
Chapter 1
Problem field of psychology of vocational education
Education as a sociocultural phenomenon
Education is traditionally defined as the creation of a person in the image and likeness of the culture existing at a given historical time. At the same time, culture is understood as a system of patterns of behavior, consciousness of people, as well as objects and phenomena in the life of society, reproduced with the change of generations.
The development of education is determined by the socio-political, economic and cultural conditions of society. The closest relationship is between education and culture.
The development of industrial society has significantly enriched culture and expanded its boundaries. The production of material assets has become part of culture. The Industrial Revolution led to the emergence of practice-oriented education. Two types of education are gradually developing: general, aimed at mastering sociocultural technologies and personal development, and functional, focused on mastering industrial technologies and becoming an employee. These two types of education took shape at the beginning of the 20th century. as general and industrial education. Industrial education gradually transformed into vocational education.
At the end of the 20th century there was a transition to a post-industrial society. The development of information technologies, the emergence of multimedia means of reflecting real and unreal reality, the widespread dissemination of psychotechnologies will lead to a serious change in culture and the establishment of a new civilization. Education as a sociocultural phenomenon becomes a decisive factor in productive interaction with a new reality for a person. It can be assumed that general and vocational education will be replaced by a holistic, personality-oriented education. The basis for this assumption is the following trends in the development of modern education:
1. Each level of education is recognized as an organic component of the system of lifelong education. This trend is gradually being realized through the creation of integrative, cumulative educational institutions that unite a gymnasium, college, university or lyceum, college, university (other options for successive levels of general and vocational education are also possible).
2. Information technologies are being widely introduced into education, including multimedia and virtual technologies. The use of these technologies significantly changes traditional cognitively oriented learning. Computerization and technologization of education significantly expand the intellectual activity of students.
3. There is a tendency to move from a strictly regulated organization of education to variable, block-modular, contextual learning. These forms of education require a high level of development of educational independence, the ability for self-realization and self-education.
4. The interaction between teacher and student gradually changes, acquiring the nature of cooperation. Both the teacher and the student become equal subjects of the educational process.
5. The gradual transition from continuity of all levels of education to a holistic, collectively integrated education presupposes joint responsibility for the process and result of education, provides for the ability to self-determination - effective competence in decision-making in continuously changing social, cultural, educational and professional situations.
These trends characterize the current state of education in developed countries and determine the principles of its reform at the end of the 20th century.
Basic principles of education development:
The development of the student’s personality, becoming a system-forming factor in the design of education, the orientation of education towards the development of personality determines fundamentally new organization, content of education and learning technologies;
The formation of effective competence (social, intellectual, moral) of the student as an individual capable of self-determination, self-education, self-regulation and self-actualization, proclaimed as the goal of education;
Differentiation of the content and organization of the educational process, occurring on the basis of taking into account the individual psychological characteristics of students, their needs for self-realization and fulfillment;
Continuity of all levels of education (general, primary, secondary specialized and higher) with a focus on holistic education. The core of the implementation of this principle is the developing personality of the student, which will become
factor of interdisciplinary integration of content and teaching technology;
Adequacy of levels of education and culture, ensured by the personality-oriented nature of the content and teaching technologies.
Education as a system, process and result
Education is nonequilibrium system within which, depending on various factors: level of education, age of students, attitude to the church and state, sociocultural orientation, different subsystems can be distinguished.
The system-forming factor of education is its goal - the development of a person as an individual in the process of his learning. Education as a process is carried out throughout a person’s conscious life, changing in terms of goals, content and technology of education.
Education as a system can be analyzed in three dimensions, which are:
Social scale of consideration: education in the world, a particular country, region, as well as the system of state, private, public, secular, clerical and other forms of education;
Level of education: preschool, school, professional (primary, secondary specialized, higher), postgraduate (postgraduate, doctoral) education, advanced training and retraining;
Profile of education: general, special (humanitarian, technical, natural science, medical, etc.).
All these three dimensions are represented in various kinds of institutions: international organizations, ministries, departments of education, universities, colleges, lyceums, gymnasiums, schools, kindergartens.
Education as a process is carried out in teaching and learning, which form a unity. Training is a purposeful, consistent transmission of sociocultural experience to another person in specially organized conditions of a family, school (general education, secondary specialized and higher education), advanced training institutions, etc. Training is implemented in the pedagogical activities of a teacher, teacher, industrial training master, instructor.
The learner’s ability to appropriate sociocultural experience is called learning ability, and the result of the learning process is called learning ability.
Characterizing developmental education, V.V. Davydov formulated the following main provisions:
Training is carried out on the basis of mastering the content of a system of educational subjects;
Each academic subject is a unique projection of one or another form of social consciousness: science, art, morality, law;
The core of an academic subject is its program: a systematic and hierarchical description of the knowledge and skills that are to be acquired;
The program determines the technology of teaching, the nature of educational (didactic) aids, and also designs the type of thinking that is formed in students when mastering educational material.
Teaching is the purposeful appropriation by the student of the sociocultural experience transmitted to him and the individual experience formed on this basis: knowledge, abilities, skills, generalized ways of performing actions, social, educational and professional qualities and abilities.
An analysis of the concepts of learning conducted by I. I. Ilyasov shows that some authors interpreted learning as the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities (Ya. A. Komensky, A. Disterweg, L. S. Vygotsky, S. L. Rubinstein, A. N. Leontiev), others viewed learning as the acquisition of knowledge, skills and the development of cognitive processes (I. Herbart, K. D. Ushinsky), third - as the acquisition of experience and the restructuring of previous structures of experience (J. Piaget, K. Koffka) 2.
I. Lingart considers teaching as a type of activity in which the subject in a given situation changes under the influence of external conditions, depending on the results of his own activities, builds his behavior and his mental processes, i.e. teaching is interpreted as a factor in mental development.
V.V. Davydov considers teaching as a specific type of educational activity, the content of which includes not only procedurality and effectiveness, but also structural organization. At the same time, much attention is paid to the formation of educational activity and its subject.
All the definitions of teaching discussed above allow us to state the multifaceted nature of this phenomenon. The results of the study are changes in consciousness, the acquisition of skills and abilities in the form of experience and multifaceted activities and behavior, as well as the development of personal abilities and qualities.
Education as a result is presented in two forms. First of all, the result of education is recorded in the form of a standard. Modern education standards determine the content and scope of knowledge and skills, and include requirements for human qualities that must be formed when studying a given academic subject. In general, the education standard reflects the optimal level of sociocultural experience that a student should acquire upon graduation.
The second component of the result of education is a person’s education: his level of preparedness, the totality of formed knowledge, skills, social, intellectual, behavioral qualities and sociocultural experience. Education can be both general and socio-professional.
A full-fledged systemic education received in the learning process creates conditions for a person to realize himself as an individual, gives him social and professional mobility, and lays the foundation for competitiveness in changing living conditions.
Leading Educational Paradigms
An analysis of psychological and pedagogical literature has shown that currently in theory and practice there are three paradigms of vocational education: cognitive, activity-based and personality-oriented. Let's consider their capabilities in vocational education.
In accordance with cognitive paradigm education is considered by analogy with cognition, and its process: setting goals, selecting content, choosing forms, methods and means of teaching - will be carried out as a quasi-research activity. Personal aspects of learning come down to the formation of cognitive motivation and cognitive abilities, as well as the accumulation of experience in semantic, value and emotional assessments of the behavior of other people and one’s own.
The learning goal reflects the social order for the quality of knowledge, skills and abilities. The educational subject is considered as a kind of “projection” of science and practice, the educational material is considered as didactically “prepared” scientific and technological knowledge.
The main thing is the information support of the individual, and not its development, which turns out to be a “by-product” of ongoing educational activities, the purpose of which is the assimilation of certain knowledge and methods of activity.
Activity-oriented paradigm education has a clearly expressed functionalist orientation. The guiding role in this paradigm is played by the social order of society for education. Being part of social practice, education, especially vocational education, must “remember” its place in the political, sociocultural and economic development of society. The goal setting of education within the framework of the activity-oriented paradigm is formulated unambiguously: education, in its function, is a sociocultural technology for the formation of knowledge, abilities and skills, as well as generalized methods of mental and practical actions that ensure the success of social, labor and artistic and applied activities. The activity-oriented paradigm is reflected in the concept of development of primary vocational education.
The use of an activity-oriented model of education is justified in the study of professional, special disciplines and, of course, in the process of industrial training and practical training. This paradigm is most focused on training students in primary vocational education.
Central link personality-oriented education is the professional development of the personality of students.
It is based on the following fundamental principles:
The priority of individuality and self-worth of the student, who is initially the subject of the professional process, is recognized;
Technologies of vocational education at all its levels are correlated with the laws of professional development of the individual;
Vocational education has a proactive nature, which is ensured by the formation of socio-professional competence and the development of extra-functional qualities of the future specialist in the process of educational-professional, quasi-professional, industrial and cooperative activities;
The effectiveness of the professional educational process is determined by the organization of the educational and spatial environment;
Personally oriented professional education is maximally addressed to the individual experience of the student, his need for self-organization, self-determination and self-development.
All designated educational paradigms are currently in demand by professional schools. Their choice is determined by the educational profession and specialty, the content of the academic discipline, and the subjective professional experience of the teacher.
The innovative components of the considered educational paradigms are key competencies, key competencies and key qualifications. The implementation of these key components will require new content of vocational education and new state standards, focused not on initial program materials, but on educational outcomes, including key competencies, key competencies and key qualifications. The development of these multidimensional socio-psychological and professional pedagogical formations will also require new technologies and means of training, education and development, as well as a new organization of educational and professional space.
A mechanism for stimulating innovative searches for ways to implement a new education strategy can be the technology of assessing the activities of an educational institution during its certification and accreditation.
The introduction of innovative approaches into the practice of professional schools will significantly improve the quality of education, increase its economic efficiency, and ensure the social and professional security of the individual.
It is obvious that each of the educational paradigms has its own advantages and disadvantages. Based on the study of the relationship between educational activities and professional development of the individual, we will consider the feasibility of using these models of education at different stages of students’ professional training,
First stage. The learning conditions in a vocational school, to a greater extent than in a general education school, require students to be able to independently organize educational activities and the ability to learn. It is important to form in students a holistic structure of learning activities in the interrelation of all its components.
The ability to learn can be defined as the degree of mastery of methods of educational and cognitive activity in the process of acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities.
The success of learning in an educational institution depends on the first stage, so it can be considered a sensitive period for the formation of educational skills.
The initial stage approximately covers the 1st year of study. Its goal is to adapt school graduates to new learning conditions. This requires the formation of such educational skills as planning and organizing one’s time; analysis of educational material; analysis and correction of one’s educational activities, setting goals and choosing ways to achieve them; forming relationships with students in the group and with teachers; memorizing and reproducing educational material, solving problems that arise during the learning process, etc.
The optimal education model for this stage of professional training is cognitively oriented.
The initial stage is the base for the subsequent main stage.
Main stage. It is characterized by the implementation of predominantly educational and production activities, the most important feature of which is the solution of educational tasks of a production nature. Approximately the main stage includes 2-3 years of study,
The purpose of this stage is to teach students how to solve educational and production problems. These include typical production tasks, assignments and exercises. The main thing is the formation of skills and generalized methods of action, the so-called key competencies.
The final stage. The professional development of the student’s personality and the formation of his activities at the final stage are built on the basis of the educational and professional skills and personal qualities already formed at the previous stages of training. The specifics of this stage, at which educational and professional activity dominates, are as follows: educational tasks are predominantly of the nature of professional activity, forms of training are close to the types of future activity, new formations acquired at this stage are professionalized.
Approximately the final stage covers the 3rd-4th years of study.
The purpose of this stage is to teach students to solve educational and professional problems. It is necessary to provide for the formation of such educational and professional skills as planning and organizing one’s professional activities, its analysis and correction, solving professional problems, identifying problems in one’s professional activities and ways to solve them, the ability to build relationships in professional groups, and analyzing production and technological situations.
As has already been shown above, at each stage one of the considered educational paradigms is justified: at the first stage - cognitively oriented, at the second - activity-oriented and at the final stage - personality-oriented. The dynamics of the process of professional development of an individual at each stage depends on the correspondence between the student’s actual educational and professional activity and the normative activity built according to the logic of development. If they correspond, an effective transformation of the structural components of the personality occurs (progressive development). Otherwise, the development curve transforms into a “plateau”, asymptotically approaching a new quality, but not achieving it. We emphasize that a transition to a higher level is possible only after mastering activities at a lower level.
Chapter 2
Activities and personalities
Basic Concepts
The initial conceptual concept of professional studies is the concept "profession". There are many interpretations of this concept in professional literature. First of all, this is an activity that requires special training, which a person practices regularly and which serves as his source of livelihood. Further, a profession unites a group of people engaged in similar activities, within which certain connections and norms of behavior are established. A profession acts as a special form of social organization of able-bodied members of society, united by a common type of activity and professional consciousness. According to B. Shaw's definition, a profession is a conspiracy of specialists against the uninitiated. E.A. Klimov gives several definitions in his works. The most complete is the following: “A profession is an area of application of a person’s physical and spiritual forces that is necessary for society, socially valuable and limited due to the division of labor, giving him the opportunity to receive in return for the labor expended the necessary means of his existence and development.” Clarifying this voluminous definition, E. A. Klimov characterizes a profession as a community, an activity, an area of manifestation of personality, and as a historically developing system. Let us give another definition of it: “From the point of view of society, a profession is a system of professional tasks, forms and types of professional activities, professional characteristics of an individual that can ensure the satisfaction of the needs of society in achieving the significant result or product that society needs.” A narrower definition of a profession, from the point of view of a specific person, is given by V. G. Makushin: a profession is an activity through which a given person participates in the life of society and which serves as his main source of material livelihood.
A generalization of the available interpretations allows us to give the following definition. Profession(lat. professional) - These are historically emerged forms of labor activity, for which a person must have certain knowledge and skills, have special abilities and developed professionally important qualities.
In the English-speaking environment, the concepts of “profession” are distinguished (professiop) and "occupation" (ossiratiop). The term “profession” applies only to a small range of high-status types of professional activity. All other types of activities relate to specialties or types of work or occupations.
In domestic professional studies, the concepts of “profession” and “specialty” are distinguished. A profession is a broader concept than a specialty; its distinctive features, in addition to professional competence, are also socio-professional competence, professional autonomy, self-control, group norms and values. A profession, as a rule, unites a group of related specialties. For example, profession - doctor, specialties - therapist, pediatrician, ophthalmologist, urologist, etc.; profession - engineer, specialties - designer, technologist, metallurgist; profession - mechanic, specialties - plumber, electrician, tool maker, etc.
Speciality- this is a complex of special knowledge, skills and abilities acquired through professional education, training and in the process of work, necessary to perform a certain type of activity within a particular profession. Thus, a specialty is one of the types of professional activity within a profession, aimed at achieving more specific or intermediate results or at achieving general results by specific means.
In the history of the development of civilization, the division of labor into professional activities was observed already before our era in Egypt, Ancient Greece, the Roman Empire and other developed countries. Significant differentiation of labor occurred during the industrial revolution. Subsequent scientific and technological progress led to a significant update and increase in the range of professions. In 1965, the official directory of the United States listed the characteristics of 21,741 professions and about 40,000 specialties in alphabetical order. There were 9,333 occupations listed in the International Standard for the Classification of Occupations in 1988. The Unified Tariff and Qualification Directory unites about 7,000 professions and specialties. These special documents reflect the professional situation prevailing at the time of their preparation. Published reference books already need to be corrected at the time of their publication, since the world of professions is very dynamic. New professions are constantly emerging, the labor content of existing professions is being updated, low-skilled professions are dying out, and combined and integrated professions and specialties are appearing.
For many professions and specialties, training is carried out at enterprises and institutions of training, retraining and advanced training. For training in the most widespread professions that require high specific qualifications, there is a system of primary, secondary and higher vocational education. For this system, the concept of “teaching profession” is basic.
Teaching profession- this is a level of qualifications that reflects the volume and quality of knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for the further development and performance of activities in a given specific professional field.
The concept of “professionography” includes the process of study, psychological characteristics and design of a profession. When professionalizing, the signs of objects that are the central components of any labor process are always studied: the subject of labor, the subject, tasks, tools and working conditions.
One of the fundamental principles of professional development has become the principle of a differentiated approach to the study of professional activity. The essence of this principle is the subordination of professionalization to the solution of specific practical problems. For example, for the purposes of professional consultation and selection, it is necessary to identify those professionally important features that allow the differentiation of subjects according to their professional suitability. To determine the level of qualification, the characteristics of labor functions, professional knowledge, skills and abilities are of great importance. For vocational education, the characteristics of the types of activities, the composition of typical production tasks, and the list of necessary knowledge, abilities, skills, qualities and properties of a specialist are important.
It is obvious that vocational education cannot be provided for all professions, and the conditions, means, content, and levels of complexity of various types of professional activities are very different. We need a scientifically based selection of educational professions according to certain characteristics, criteria, their classification and establishment of qualification levels. The result should be a list of educational professions, on the basis of which the forms of specialist training are determined. This can be short-term training at enterprises, training in vocational schools or universities.
The list of educational professions is also influenced by the prevalence of professions, contraindications for work with difficult and harmful working conditions, as well as age restrictions.
Compiling a list of educational professions for vocational education will always be relevant. And of course, this list should have a scientifically based grouping and be small.
Educationally oriented
Chapter 4
Key qualifications
In domestic professional pedagogy, the concepts of key qualifications and competencies are not discussed. In foreign pedagogy, they are widely implemented in vocational schools. Let us consider this problem in relation to student-centered education.
The concept of “key qualifications” was theoretically justified by D. Mertens in the mid-1970s. in Germany. He saw the need to revise the traditional understanding of qualifications in the changes that were taking place in production technologies. The widespread dissemination of information and communication technology, an unclear labor market, and the development of dynamic production technologies determined, in his opinion, new qualification requirements for specialists. The main idea was to prepare a new generation of specialists capable of adapting to modern production technologies, easily moving from one type of work to another, and possessing the knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for a wide range of professions.
Similar requirements for the training of general-purpose workers are formulated at the same time in domestic pedagogy. (P. R. Atutov, S. Ya. Batyshev, A. P. Belyaeva, V. A. Polyakov, S. A. Shaporinsky and etc.). The main attention was paid to the training of workers capable of carrying out professional activities in a broad aspect, the basis of which is the integration of blue-collar professions.
The fundamental difference between these two approaches was the change in the interpretation of qualifications. In foreign pedagogy, an additional concept of “key qualification” is introduced, which takes on an independent meaning and is not associated with a specific profession. In domestic professional pedagogy, the traditional understanding of qualifications is significantly enriched. It is defined as a set of social and professional qualification requirements for a person’s social and professional abilities.
Both approaches were aimed at developing general professional (polytechnic) knowledge and skills, developing creative abilities, expanding the professional profile, ensuring professional mobility and competitiveness.
Over the next ten years, the concept of key qualifications was not developed in Germany. In the USSR, the provision on the training of workers of a wide profile, a new interpretation of qualifications began to be successfully developed in professional pedagogy and implemented in practice.
In the mid-1980s. In Germany there is renewed interest in the concept of developing key qualifications. This time the initiative comes from scientists-teachers closely associated with the educational centers for training specialists of large industrial enterprises and firms: Mercedes, Ore1, etc. Innovative projects focused on the development of key qualifications are beginning to be developed.
German teachers and psychologists took part in the development of these projects R. Bader, K. Boretty, U. Klein, etc. Surveys of managers and entrepreneurs conducted in the early 1990s showed that the most popular and relevant characteristics of specialists are independence, adaptability, special knowledge, communication skills, efficiency, punctuality, and creativity. These studies became the basis for compiling catalogs of key qualifications. A. Schelten compiled the following expanded catalog of key qualifications:
1. General educational knowledge, abilities and skills of a wide profile: speech culture, knowledge of foreign languages, general technological and economic education.
2. General professional knowledge and skills in the field of measuring equipment, technical and technological diagnostics, reading and development of technical documentation, labor protection, necessary for a wide range of activities.
3. Cognitive abilities - the ability to transfer knowledge and skills from one type of professional activity to another, to solve problems, independence and critical thinking.
4. Psychomotor abilities - general psychomotor skills: coordination of actions, endurance, speed of reactions, manual dexterity, concentration, etc.
5. Personal qualities: reliability, responsibility, independence, optimism, achievement motivation, desire for quality in work.
6. Social abilities: cooperation, willingness to cooperate, communication, tolerance, corporate spirit, justice.
The formation of these key qualifications, according to the supporters of the approach, should help overcome the uncertainty of the labor market, form a long-term basis for professional activity, and take into account as much as possible the trends of the third technological revolution.
A comparative analysis of the vocational education systems of Russia and Germany shows that our country is focused on training generalist specialists capable of carrying out professional activities in a broad aspect, the basis of which is the integration of several (most often related) professions. In Germany, much attention is paid to the quality formation of professional and specialized knowledge, skills and abilities (actions). To this traditional training is added another important innovative block - key qualifications that have a wide range of action, go beyond the boundaries of one group of professions, professionally and psychologically prepare a specialist to change and master new specialties and professions, and ensure readiness for innovation in professional activities.
It is hardly possible to unambiguously assess the advantages and disadvantages of these two approaches, but consideration of the productivity of the concept of key qualifications in vocational education in Russia seems justified.
So, changes in the field of production technologies necessitate the formation in a specialist of special supra-professional, or more precisely, extra-functional knowledge, abilities and skills, properties, qualities and abilities that ensure his professional mobility, competitiveness and social security.
To determine the composition and structure of key qualifications in the traditions of domestic professional education, let us turn to the works in the field of professionography by E. I. Garber, E. A. Klimov, V. V. Kozach, E. M. Ivanova, A. K. Markova and others. Initial The conceptual concept is a profession as a historically emerged form of labor activity, for the performance of which a person must have certain knowledge, skills and abilities, have professionally important qualities and special psychophysiological properties. The scientific description of a profession is carried out using various methods of professionography: technical and economic, sociological, psychological, physiological.
Depending on the purpose of professiography, different models of professiograms are designed: informational, diagnostic, prognostic, methodological, etc. The greatest interest for the subject of our analysis is educationally oriented professionography. Its development is based on the idea of subjectivity of the profession. The student becomes a subject of the profession subject to the development of professionally determined substructures of the personality.
Psychological concepts
A brief excursion into the history of psychology
1 The first ideas are associated with animism
2 Materialists - philosophers of antiquity (Democrat, Lucretius, Epicurus - the soul is a type of matter
3 Idealist philosopher Plato – soul – divine, different from the body
4 Aristotle, in his “treatise on the soul,” highlighted psychology as a unique field of knowledge and put forward the idea of the inseparability of soul and body. The function of the soul is the realization of the biological existence of the soul. Knowledge of a person is possible through knowledge of the Universe. Psychology - the science of the soul
5 Middle Ages – soul – divine principle
6 from 17 to the beginning of the era in the development of mental knowledge. The ability to think, to feel with consciousness. Psycho is the science of consciousness. Descartes: the difference between the human soul and the body. Cartesian dualism: the concept of soul began to turn into mind, later into consciousness. The task of the psycho is to analyze the content and state of consciousness
7 Spinoza - an attempt to unite soul and body again
8 Leibniz introduced the concept of the unconscious psyche
9 Wolf coined the term empirical psychology. Observed for a psychotic phenomenon. Locke: the soul is passive, but capable of perceiving the environment.
10 Vyd psych as independent sciences in the 60s of the 19th century. Wundt opened an experimental psychiatric laboratory. Structuralist approach: mental science about the structure of consciousness. The objective element of consciousness is sensations, the subjective element is feelings.
11 Functionalistic approach. The role of consciousness is to allow a person to adapt to the environment
12 Sechenov is the founder. father of psychology.
13 Behaviorist approach. Watson, Skinner, Bandura. Psych is the science of behavior.
14 Gestaldt psycho. Wertheimer, Kohler, Levin put forward a program to study. psyche from the point of view of holistic structures (gestalts). Developed concept of psychological image.
15 At the beginning of the 20th century psychoanalysis arose. I studied unconscious motivation, protective mechanisms of the psyche, the role of sexuality in it, the influence of children's psychosis. injuries on a person’s consciousness.
16 Horney, Sullivan, Fromm tried to connect the nature of the core of the psyche with social conditions
17 Cognitive psychology. Neisser, Paivio assign a decisive role to knowledge in the behavior of the subject
18 Humanistic psychology. Allport, Murray, Murphy, Rogers, Maslow subject psych. research They consider a healthy creative person to be a person.
19 Spiritual (Christian) psyche is a unique branch of humanistic psyche. Subject – phenomena of spiritual life
20 Transpersonal psych. consider a person as a spiritual, cosmic feeling inextricably linked with the Universe, having access to the global information space field.
21 Interactive psych. Considering a person as a being, the main thing is communication, interaction with the people around him.
22 Leontyev – the mechanism of formation of higher functions as a process of nurturing higher forms of instrumental-sign actions into the subjective structures of a person’s psyche. Luria is one of the founders of neuropsychology. Galperin – considers mental processes as the orienting actions of the subject in problem situations.
Freudianism.
The term psychoanalysis: theory of personality and psychopathology, method of treating personality disorders, method of studying a person’s unconscious thoughts and feelings.
The subconscious area is all experience; the cat can easily return to consciousness. Consciousness is sensations and experiences at the moment. The unconscious is the repository of instinctual urges and emotions.
Personality structure:
I Id – IT – unconscious. Innate instincts, the pleasure principle
II EGO – I am consciousness. Formed under the influence of society, the principle of reality
III Superego - Superego - conscience. Formir. through overcoming the Oedipus complex
Sublimation is the transformation of the energy of suppressed, forbidden desires into types of activities.
Defense Mechanisms:
1 repression of desires
2 Denial - withdrawal into fantasy
3 rationalization - an unconscious attempt to justify one’s wrong or absurd behavior
4 inversion or counteraction - replacement of actions according to desire with the diametrically opposite
5th projection - an unconscious attempt to get rid of an obsessive desire by attributing it to another
6 substitution - showing an emotional impulse redirection from a more threatening object to a less threatening one
7 insulation
8 regression - return to an earlier primitive path of development
Saints of defense mechanisms:
Actions at an unconscious level, self-deception
Distort and deny the perception of reality
Anxiety in neurotics a consequence of inadequate discharge of libido energy, a means of warning a person about impending danger.
Freud's theory of sexual development. Features of sexual development in childhood are determined by the personality of an adult, pathologies, neuroses, and life problems.
Psychosexual activity begins with breastfeeding. A baby's mouth is a pleasure zone. Oral stage. If the forms of a passive personality type have been fixed at this stage
Oral aggressive stage. the child has teeth, biting expresses dissatisfaction
With toilet training, attention shifts to sensations associated with defecation (anal stage), and later with urination (urethral phase)
At the age of 4, interest in the genitals, in the penis, began to predominate (phallic phase). Having developed an Oedipus or Electra complex
The latent period is 10-11 years. The child’s interest is aimed at learning, communication
Genital period – sex. drives and interests and concentrate on certain members of the opposite sex.
Development has come to the end of “psychological maturity”, the parameters of which phenomenon. the ability of a person to love another person, the desire of a person to prove himself in productive work, in creating something new, useful for people.
Early childhood experiences play a critical role in shaping adult personality. Fixation can occur as a result of frustration and overprotective parents.
The task of psychoanalysis: to recreate the painful psychological symptoms of a person, to reconstruct a past traumatic event. The disadvantage of Freudianism is that it exaggerates the role of the sexual sphere in a person’s life. A person is a contradictory, tormented being whose behavior is determined by unconscious factors.
Behaviorism.
Am. psychology of the 20th century Thorndike's law of effect: the relationship between S and R if there is reinforcement.
Personality is organized and has a stable system of skills. A person is a reacting, acting, learning being programmed for reactions, actions, behavior that can be programmed.
Skinner's behavioral concept.
Consider personality as a system of reaction to various stimuli. The provision about 3 types of behavior: unconditioned reflex, conditioned reflex (caused by stimuli S and called responsive behavior) and operant. The process of adaptation is built from tests, reactions that are not caused by a stimulus, but secreted by the body, somehow turn out to be correct and reinforced. Skinner called them operant. Wedge of new behavior - reinforcement.
The principle of operant conditioning: “the behavior of living beings is conditioned by the consequences to which it leads. Depending on whether the actions are correct, the body will tend to repeat the behavioral act or not give it meaning.”
Social learning theory:
According to Rotter, social behavior can be described using the following concepts:
behavioral potential - a person has a defined set of actions, reactions forms to attraction. life
the behavior of a person is influenced by subjective probability
the nature of the reinforcement and its value for the person also influence
influences the “locus” of control Externals place responsibility for everything on external circumstances, internals on themselves.
Typology of behavior according to McGuire: the typology of a person’s behavior and actions should be carried out depending on goals, needs, and situation.
16 types of behavior:
Perceptive behavior (striving to cope with information overload)
Defensive behavior
Inductive behavior is people’s perception and assessment of themselves based on the interpretation of the meaning of their own actions.
Habitual behavior
utilitarian behavior - a person strives to solve a problem with maximum achievement
Role behavior
Script behavior
Modeling behavior - behavior of a person in large and small groups
Balancing
Liberating – striving to protect oneself from real or perceived negative actions
Attributive – eliminating contradictions between real behavior and a subjective system of opinions
Expressive
Autonomous
Affirmative
Research
Empathic
Cognitive approach in psychology
According to Bruner's concept: our knowledge of the world is sensory and motor. Sensorimotor mapping is decisive during childhood
Language is the most important tool for the development of cognitive processes.
Jean Piaget: Cognitive development is the result of gradual development.
Subjective interpretation of situations is a truer decision-making factor than the objective meaning of the situation
Ellis: Chalk's misbehavior is caused by irrational thoughts generated by the "activating situation."
The non-adaptive nature of automatic thoughts and distortions in assessments of the situation are explained by the dysfunctionality of the basic premises underlying them.
A cognitive approach to Kelly's personality. Cognitive direction emphasizes the influence of intellectual or thought processes on the behavior of a person. People perceive their world using clear systems or models called constructs. A personal construct is an idea or thought that a person uses to understand or interpret, explain or predict his or her experience. represents a stable way in which a person comprehends some aspects of reality in terms of similarity and contrast. People differ from each other in how they interpret events. Personality is an organized system of more or less important constructs that a person uses to interpret the world.
Humanistic theories of personality.
Studies healthy, harmonious personalities. If a person strives to understand the meaning of his life, to realize himself, he gradually moves to the highest level of personal self-development. Personal development – increasing understanding of the real self. Belonging to a group and a sense of self-esteem are conditions for self-actualization.
Rogers' Phenomenological Approach
A person’s behavior can be understood based on the analysis of his subjective perception and knowledge of reality
People are capable of determining their own destiny
People are fundamentally good and have a desire for excellence.
All behavior is regulated by a unifying motive—the tendency toward actualization.
Conditions important for the development of self-concept:
For people with henna there is a need for positive attention
Need for positive self-attention
People are highly influenced by significant others.
The only way not to interfere with the tendency to actualize the bangs personality is to give him unconditional positive attention.
Self-acceptance is an important and necessary condition for the full functioning of a person.
Jung's analytical psychology.
The structure of a person’s psyche:
1 consciousness (perception, thinking, will, emotions, intuition, drives, dreams)
2 personal unconscious (info from the external world of low intensity, the cat has not reached the level of consciousness; contents, the cat has lost intensity and is forgotten; innate biological instincts and impulses; suppressed desires repressed from consciousness)
3 collective unconscious (predisposition to behavior of a certain type;
"spirit of the era"; influence the external physical world).
The unconscious part of a person’s psyche is the most important information and creative base of a person; the unconscious contains much more information than consciousness and therefore is a connecting link with the world, nature, and space.
In addition to the individual unconscious, there is a collective, racial unconscious that is common to all humanity and is a manifestation of the creative cosmic force.
Collective unconscious and archetypes. The collective unconscious is identical in all people and forms the universal basis of the mental life of every person. Archetypes are “psychic prototypes hidden deep in the foundation of the conscious soul.” They determine a predisposition to behavior of a certain type, on the other hand, they determine the collective ideas and theories of humanity of the era.
The collective unconscious can be explored in two ways: through the study of mythology, and also by analyzing the psyche of a person.
The unconscious part of the psyche is the creative principle in a person. Therefore, we do not create ideas, but we are created by them.
The archetype persona is the public face of a person.
- “Shadow” - the suppressed, shadow and animal side of the personality
The Self is the core of the personality around which all other elements are organized and united. Self development is the main goal of human life
Animus
Transpersonal psychology
Consider a person most globally as a cosmic being, connected at the level of the unconscious psyche with all of humanity and the Universe and has access to the global cosmic information of humanity.
R. Assagioli's transpersonal system is psychosynthesis. A person is in a constant process of growth.
Assagioli's personality structure. The lower unconscious controls basic psychological activities. The average assimilates experience. Superconsciousness is the seat of higher feelings and abilities. Field of consciousness – including analyzing feelings, thoughts, impulses.
Each subpersonality is built on the basis of some desire of the integral personality. The purpose of introspection is to understand the essence of one’s own self and strengthen it.
Levels of transpersonal worldview: physical, biological, psychological, subtle, causal, absolute knowledge.
Transpersonal approach to a person S. Grof.
He identified 4 areas of the psyche beyond consciousness: the sensory barrier, the individual unconscious, the level of birth and death, and the Transpersonal area.
The human psyche is commensurate with the entire universe and all of humanity. A person can function as a limitless field of consciousness. A person is simultaneously a material object and a vast field of consciousness.
1st sphere of the evolution of consciousness - the lowest subtle level, including the astral-mediumistic region
2nd - the highest subtle level - the area of genuine intuition, symbolic vision and archetypal forms.
The concept of Dianetics and Scientology, which was developed by Hubbard, is adjacent to transpersonal psychology. He distinguishes between "engrams" - mental records from times of unconsciousness and "secondary" - mental images of emotions such as grief or anger.
Psychogenetic approach of Ch. Teutsch.
Close to transpersonal psychology. Even before a person is born, the genetic code determines most of the prospects for his life and the main patterns of behavior.
Conscious and unconscious thoughts in the physical plane are energy radiation, an energy wave. Brain radiation has no restrictions in time and space. Human energy waves have a specific amplitude, intensity, and range of purity.
Conscious and unconscious desires, beliefs, thoughts, in addition to the subjective internal state, also receive objective expression in various forms: energy radiation-waves, human actions, conscious thoughts.
3rd form of response to stress in a person: “intrahuman” (a problem that a person tried to oust from consciousness turns into a complex), “interhuman method” (a person’s problem is driven into the unconscious part of the psyche), “genetic method” (if the problem it is essentially possible to transmit it through a genetic mechanism at an unconscious level to descendants.
The main task of all human activity is the purification of DNA through individual or collective efforts - conscious and unconscious.
Theory – it is a system of interrelated ideas, constructs and principles that aims to explain various observations of reality.
Personality theory - these are carefully verified conclusions or hypotheses about what a person is, how he behaves and why he acts this way and not otherwise.
A key component in any theory of personality is the concept of personality development and the question of how motivational aspects of personality functioning change from infancy to adulthood and old age, as well as the identification of factors (genetic or environmental) that influence personality. The provisions of a particular theory are deeply and fundamentally influenced by the author’s views on the nature of personality. Personality theory provides a semantic context in which it becomes possible to describe and interpret human behavior.
Various theories of personality can be reduced to the following classification (see R. S. Nemov).
Behaviorism (English) behavior- behavior). The founder of behaviorism J. Watson (1878 – 1958) at the beginning of the 20th century. considered human behavior as an adaptation of a living being to its environment. From the point of view of J. Watson, behavior is a system of reactions. Having read (in German and French translation) the works of V. M. Bekhterev and I. P. Pavlov, J. Watson finally became convinced that the conditioned reflex should become the main unit of behavior analysis and is the key to developing skills, building complex movements from simple ones , as well as to any forms of behavior, including those of an affective nature. He believed that there is not a single action that does not have a reason behind it in the form of an external stimulus. The main formula of behaviorism is “S – R” (stimulus – response). The main research tasks of behaviorists boiled down to the following: identifying and describing types of reactions, studying the processes of their formation, studying the laws of combinations; as a more general and final task: to predict the behavior (reaction) of a person based on the situation (stimulus) and determine the stimulus that caused it based on the nature of the reaction.
According to the theory of behaviorism, classical (according to I.P. Pavlov) and operant (fixed when any action is reinforced and subsequently reproduced with greater ease) conditioning is a universal learning mechanism, common to both animals and humans. At the same time, the learning process is presented as completely automatic, not requiring human activity. To “consolidate” a successful reaction in the nervous system, it is enough to use only reinforcement, regardless of the will and desires of the person himself. From here, behaviorists concluded that with the help of incentives and reinforcement, one can literally “sculpt” any human behavior, manipulate it, that human behavior is strictly “determined” and depends on external circumstances and past experience.
The “S – R” formula turned out to be quite limited. This theory ignores the existence of consciousness, i.e. the inner mental world of a person, which in itself is false. The spread of behaviorist views contributed to the study of mental phenomena from a natural scientific perspective.
Neobehaviorism . Attempts to include the categories of motive and psychosocial attitude into the original behaviorist program led to a new direction - neobehaviorism.
One of the representatives of late behaviorism, E. Tolman (1886 - 1959), an American psychologist, proposed introducing a significant amendment to the “S – R” scheme, placing so-called “intermediate variables” - V between S and R. As a result, the scheme takes the form “S – V – R.” By “intermediate variables” E. Tolman understood internal processes that mediate the action of a stimulus, such as goals, intentions, images of situations.
E. Tolman in the 30s of the XX century. described behavior as a system connected to its environment by a network of cognitive relationships (“what leads to what”). The human body not only encounters the environment, but, as it were, meets it halfway with its expectations, building hypotheses and showing ingenuity in search of the optimal way out of a problem situation.
K. Hull (1884 - 1953) proved that of all the factors influencing human behavior, the reduction (intensification) of needs has a decisive impact.
F. Skinner (1904 – 1990) believed that the personality of an individual consists of relatively complex, but nevertheless independently acquired reactions and is absolutely dependent on previous reinforcements. The concept of reinforcement plays a key role in Skinner's theory. Constitutional factors limit behavior. Throughout life, a person’s behavior can change under the influence of a changing environment: since the reinforcing features in the environment are different, different behavior is formed under their direct control. Human behavior is controlled by aversive (unpleasant or painful) stimuli: punishment or negative reinforcement. A logical extension of the principle of reinforcement is that a behavior reinforced in one situation is very likely to be repeated when the organism encounters other situations that resemble it. The tendency of reinforced behavior to spread across many similar positions is called stimulus generalization. With adaptive behavior, a person has the ability to make differences in different environmental situations - stimulus discrimination. Personal development occurs as a result of the interaction of generalizing and discriminative abilities, through which a person regulates behavior so as to maximize positive reinforcement and minimize punishment. Skinner established that the process of behavior formation determines the development of oral speech, since language is the result of reinforcement of certain actions. Skinner explained life crises as changes in the environment that place the individual in a situation where the set of behavioral responses is inadequate to obtain reinforcement in a new situation. He developed the so-called operant learning, in which only the behavior or operations that the subject is performing at the moment are reinforced. A complex reaction is divided into a number of simple, successive and sequentially reinforced operations leading to a common goal. The programmed teaching method developed by F. Skinner made it possible to optimize the educational process and develop corrective programs for underachieving or mentally retarded children.
Social behaviorism (social cognitive theory) . D. Mead (1863 - 1931), an American scientist, began to consider personality in the process of its interaction with other people. He argued that personality is, as it were, a union of various roles that it assumes. According to D. Mead's theory, called the expectancy theory, children play their roles depending on the expectations of an adult and past experience (observation of parents, acquaintances).
The works of A. Bandura (b. 1925), devoted to the correction of deviant behavior, are currently of great importance in the development of social behaviorism (social-cognitive theory).
A. Bandura views a person as having the abilities of thinking and self-regulation, which allows him to predict events and create means to exercise control over the environment. A. Bandura understands the reasons for human functioning as a continuous interaction of behavior, cognitive sphere and environment. Many aspects of personality functioning involve the individual's interactions with others. Internal determinants of behavior, such as belief and expectation, and external determinants, such as reward and punishment, are part of a system of interacting influences that act not only on a person's behavior, but also on various parts of the system. Although human behavior is influenced by the environment, it is also partly a product of human activity, that is, a person can influence his own behavior.
Because of a person's ability to represent actual outcomes symbolically (through anticipation), future consequences can be translated into immediate incentives that influence behavior in much the same way as potential consequences. Much learning occurs vicariously, that is, through observing the behavior of others, individuals learn to imitate that behavior. The implementation of new reactions, observed some time ago, but never practiced, turns out to be possible thanks to human cognitive abilities. These symbolic, cognitive skills allow an individual to transform what they have learned or combine what they have observed in a number of models into new patterns of behavior. Observing behavior that causes positive reinforcement or prevents some aversive conditions can be a powerful incentive to pay attention, maintain, and build the same behavior in the future (in a similar situation). Bandura, analyzing the role of reinforcement in observational learning, showed its cognitive orientation. Reinforcement tells a person what consequences can be expected as a result of a correct or incorrect response.
From the point of view of social cognitive theory, many human actions are regulated by self-imposed reinforcement. Self-reinforcement occurs when a person sets a bar for achievement and rewards or punishes himself for achieving, exceeding, or failing.
A wide range of human behavior is regulated by self-esteem reactions, expressed in the form of self-satisfaction, pride in one's successes, self-dissatisfaction and self-criticism.
In recent years, A. Bandura introduced into his theoretical constructs the postulate of the cognitive mechanism of self-efficacy to explain personal functioning and change. The concept of self-efficacy refers to people's ability to recognize their ability to engage in behavior appropriate to a specific task or situation. Bandura proposed that the acquisition of self-efficacy can occur in any of four ways (or any combination of them): the ability to construct behavior, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and a state of physical (emotional) arousal.
Cognitive theory . J. Kelly (1905 – 1967) is one of the first personologists who emphasized cognitive processes as the main feature of human functioning. In accordance with his theoretical system, called the psychology of personal constructs, a person is essentially a scientist, a researcher who seeks to understand, interpret, anticipate and control the world of his personal experiences in order to effectively interact with it. This view of man underlies modern cognitive orientation in personality psychology.
J. Kelly built his theory of personality on the basis of a holistic philosophical position - constructive alternativeism.
Constructive alternativeism proves that there is no such thing in the world about which “there cannot be two opinions”; a person’s awareness of reality is always a subject for interpretation; objective reality, of course, exists, but different people perceive it differently; nothing is permanent or final; facts and events (like all human experience) exist only in the human mind, and there are different ways to interpret them. The concept of constructive alternativeism assumes that human behavior is never fully determined, therefore there is no true or valid way of interpreting a person. A person is always free to some extent to revise or change his interpretation of reality, but his thoughts and behavior are determined by previous events.
Kelly believed that people perceive their world through clear systems or models called constructs. Each person has a unique construct system that they use to interpret life experiences and anticipate future events. Personality is equivalent to the personality constructs used by a person to predict the future. To understand another person, you need to know about the constructs that he uses, the events included in these constructs, and how they relate to each other. A person’s behavior is determined by how he predicts the future using his unique system of personal constructs.
Kelly characterized the organization of constructs in terms of a hierarchical system, in which some constructs are subordinate, and some are subordinate to other parts of the system; the organization of constructs is not rigidly fixed. People are similar to each other if the same events have approximately the same psychological meaning for them, and not because they experienced identical events in life; If two people share views on the world, then most likely their behavior will be similar. Cultural differences are rooted in differences in the constructs that people use. In order to interact fruitfully with another, a person needs to interpret some part of the constructive system of the other. The similarity of constructs determines the formation of friendship.
J. Kelly believed that his theory could be useful for understanding emotional states, mental health and mental disorders.
Gestalpsychology ( him . gestalt – shape, structure ). Simultaneously with the emergence of behaviorism in the United States, another direction was developing in Germany - gestaltism. A group of young researchers - M. Wertheimer (1880 - 1943), W. Köhler (1887 - 1967), K. Koffka (1886 - 1941), successors of European functionalism - discovered integral structures in the human consciousness - Gestalts, indivisible into sensory primary elements, which have their own characteristics and laws. The leading mental process that determines the level of development of the human psyche, from the point of view of Gestaltists, is perception. How a person perceives the world determines his behavior and understanding of the situation. In the development of perception, a large role is played by the combination of figure and background on which a given object is demonstrated (the phenomenon of “figure and background” (E. Rubin) took the main place among the basic laws of Gestalt). The basic properties of perception appear gradually, with the maturation of gestalts.
The process of mental development is divided into two independent and parallel processes - maturation and learning. During perception, there is first a “grasping” of the integral image of an object, and then its differentiation. Learning leads to the formation of a new structure and, consequently, to a different perception and awareness of the situation. The moment phenomena enter another situation, they acquire a new function. This awareness of new combinations and new functions of objects is the formation of a new gestalt, the awareness of which is the essence of thinking.
The process of “gestalt restructuring” occurs instantly – “insight” (eng. insight– discretion), i.e. insight does not depend on the subject’s past experience and is an explanation of adaptive forms of behavior. Insight meant for Gestaltists a transition to a new cognitive, figurative structure, according to which the nature of adaptive reactions changes. Gestaltism considered the only psychological facts to be the phenomena of consciousness directly experienced by the subject, trying to correlate the “phenomenal world” with the real, physical one, without at the same time depriving consciousness of its independent value. M. Wertheimer spoke out against the traditional practice of teaching at school, arguing that an early transition to logical thinking interferes with the development of creativity.
Psychoanalysis (Freudianism) . The term “psychoanalysis” has three meanings: 1) theory of personality and psychopathology; 2) method of treating personality disorders; 3) a method of studying unconscious thoughts and feelings of an individual.
Psychoanalytic theory, authored by S. Freud (1865 - 1939), assigns a leading role to the complex interaction between instincts, motives and drives, which compete with each other for dominance in the regulation of behavior. Personality, from the point of view of psychoanalysis, is a dynamic configuration of processes in endless conflict. Human behavior is deterministic.
Initially, describing the topographic model of personal organization, S. Freud identified three levels in a person’s mental life: consciousness, preconscious And unconscious. Level consciousness consists of sensations and experiences that a person is aware of at the moment. Consciousness covers only a small percentage of all information received and stored in the brain. Region preconscious, sometimes called "accessible memory", includes all experiences that are not currently conscious, but can easily return to consciousness, spontaneously or as a result of minimal effort. Unconscious represents a repository of primitive instinctual urges plus emotions and memories that are so threatening to consciousness that they have been repressed into the unconscious. According to Freud, such unconscious material largely determines a person's daily functioning.
In the early 20s of the XX century. Freud revised his conceptual model of mental life and introduced three components into the structure of personality: id, ego And superego ( concepts adopted in English translations, equivalents of Freud's original terms - “it”, “I”, “super-ego”).
“It” (lat. id - it) is exclusively primitive, instinctive and innate aspects of personality. “It” is associated with bodily processes, the so-called “true mental reality” by Freud, reflecting the inner world of subjective experiences, unaware of objective reality. Being the oldest original structure of the psyche, “it” expresses the primary principle of all human life - the immediate discharge of psychic energy produced by biologically determined impulses (especially sexual and aggressive). If impulses are restrained and do not find release, then tension is created in personal functioning. The immediate release of tension is called pleasure principle. Freud described two mechanisms by which the “it” relieves the personality of tension: reflex actions and primary processes.
"I" (lat. ego- “I”) is a component of the mental apparatus responsible for decision making. The "I" strives to express and satisfy the desires of the "it" according to the restrictions imposed by the external world. The “I” must constantly differentiate between events on the mental plane and real events in the external world. The “I” is subject to the principle of reality, the purpose of which is to preserve the integrity of the organism by delaying the gratification of instincts until the moment when the opportunity to achieve discharge in a suitable way and (or) appropriate conditions in the external environment is found. The reality principle introduces a measure of rationality into human behavior.
"Super-ego" (lat. super- "above", ego- “I”) is the last component of the developing personality, representing an internalized version of social norms and standards of behavior. Freud divided the superego into two subsystems: conscience And ego ideal. Conscience includes the ability for critical self-evaluation, the presence of moral prohibitions and the emergence of feelings of guilt. Ego ideal- This is the rewarding aspect of the superego. The “super-ego” directs a person to absolute perfection in thoughts, words and actions, inhibiting any socially condemned impulses on the part of the “it”.
Psychoanalytic theory is based on the idea that people are complex energy systems. Human behavior is activated by a single energy according to the law of conservation of energy. The source of mental energy is the neurophysiological state of excitation. Each person has a certain amount of energy that fuels mental activity. The goal of any form of human behavior is to reduce the tension caused by the unpleasant accumulation of this energy.
According to Freud's theory, the motivation of human behavior is entirely based on the energy of excitation produced by bodily needs, the mental images of which, expressed in the form of desires, are called instincts. Instincts are the ultimate cause of any activity. Freud recognized the existence of two main groups of instincts: life instincts(under the general name Eros) and of death(called Thanatos). Freud considered sexual instincts to be the most essential for personality development. The energy of sexual instincts is called libido(Latin – to want, to desire), or libido energy is a term used to mean the energy of life instincts in general. Death instincts obey the principle entropy(any energy system strives to maintain dynamic equilibrium). Freud believed that all living organisms have an inherent tendency to return to the indeterminate state from which they emerged. "The purpose of life is death." Death instincts underlie all manifestations of cruelty, aggression, suicide and murder.
The psychoanalytic theory of development is based on the fact that, firstly, the experiences of early childhood play a critical role in the formation of the adult personality, and secondly, a person is born with a certain amount of libidinal energy, which passes in its development through several psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, genital), rooted in the instinctive processes of the body. An important concept is the concept of regression - a return to an earlier stage of psychosexual development and the manifestation of corresponding behavior.
The consequence of inadequate discharge of libidinal energy is anxiety. Anxiety is a function of the self, and its purpose is to respond to threatening situations in an adaptive way. Anxiety helps a person avoid consciously identifying unacceptable instinctual impulses and encourage the satisfaction of these impulses in appropriate ways at appropriate times. Regulatory mechanisms aimed at eliminating or minimizing negative, traumatic experiences caused by anxiety, Freud called defense mechanisms or psychological protection of the individual. Freud defined the ego's defense mechanisms as a conscious strategy used by the personality to protect itself from the overt expression of the "id" and counter pressure from the superego.
All defense mechanisms have two common characteristics: 1) they operate on an unconscious level, being a means of self-deception; 2) distort, deny or falsify the perception of reality.
Some basic personality defense strategies:
Crowding out - the process of removing from awareness thoughts and feelings that cause suffering; “motivated forgetting”: a person is not aware of conflicts that cause anxiety, does not remember traumatic past events. The constant desire of the repressed material for open expression can receive short-term satisfaction in dreams, jokes, slips of the tongue, etc. Repression plays a role in all forms of neurotic behavior and psychosomatic diseases.
Projection– the process by which a person attributes his own unacceptable thoughts, feelings and behavior to other people. Projection allows you to place blame on someone or something for your shortcomings or failures. Projection also explains social prejudice and the scapegoat phenomenon.
Substitution- a process in which the manifestation of an instinctive impulse is redirected from a more threatening object or person to a less threatening one.
Rationalization- a way of protecting the “I” by resorting to false argumentation, thanks to which irrational behavior is presented in such a way that it looks completely reasonable and justified in the eyes of others.
Regression– a process characterized by a return to childhood behavior patterns.
Reactive education- a protective mechanism that manifests itself in the expression of opposing impulses in a person’s behavior and thoughts.
Sublimation- a defense mechanism that allows a person, for the purpose of adaptation, to change his impulses so that they can be expressed through socially acceptable thoughts or actions. Sublimation is seen as the only healthy, constructive strategy for curbing unwanted impulses, since it allows the self to change the goal and/or object of impulses without inhibiting their manifestation. Freud argued that the sublimation of sexual instincts was the main impetus for great achievements in science and culture.
Neo-Freudianism . The two most prominent theorists who diverged from Freud and chose the path of creating their own original theoretical systems are A. Adler and C. G. Jung.
1. A. Adler's individual theory of personality. A. Adler (1870 – 1937) gave his theory the name “individual psychology” (from the Latin individuum - indivisible). Adler proceeded from the fact that not a single manifestation of life activity can be considered in isolation, but only in relation to the personality as a whole. Only in the direction of personally significant goals can an individual be perceived as a single and self-consistent whole. Adler argued that by striving for perfection, a person is able to plan his actions and determine his own destiny. He believed that a person's behavior always depends on his opinion about himself and about the environment into which he must fit, i.e. behavior clearly reflects the individual's subjective perception of reality. Adler believed that feelings of inferiority are the source of all human aspirations for self-development, growth and competence. The desire for excellence is an innate, fundamental law of human life. Superiority as a goal can take both a negative (destructive) and a positive (constructive) direction. The desire for superiority manifests itself both at the level of the individual and at the level of society. Lifestyle is a complex of behavioral activities aimed at overcoming inferiority. All human behavior occurs in a social context; Every person has a natural sense of community or social interest (German). gemeinschafttsgefuhl- “social feeling”, “sense of solidarity”), which is innate and forces one to abandon selfish goals for the sake of the goals of society. From Adler's perspective, a person's life is valuable only to the extent that he contributes to increasing the value of the lives of other people. The severity of social interest is a criterion for assessing the mental health of an individual. Based on the important role of social context in personality development, Adler drew attention to birth order as the main determinant of attitudes accompanying lifestyle. Adler believed that personality is more influenced by subjective expectations of what might happen than by past experiences.
2. Analytical theory of personality by C. G. Jung. C. G. Jung (1875 – 1961), Swiss psychologist, devoted himself to the study of dynamic unconscious drives on human experience. According to the analytical theory of personality by C. Jung, personality is motivated by intrapsychic forces and images, the origin of which goes back to the depths of the history of evolution. Man (as well as humanity in general) has an inherent desire for creative self-expression and physical perfection. Jung argued that the soul (a term similar to personality) consists of three separate but interacting structures: ego, personal unconscious and collective unconscious. Ego is the center of the sphere of consciousness, the basis of self-awareness. Personal unconscious- this is a repository of suppressed material, repressed from consciousness, as well as accumulations of interconnected thoughts and feelings, called complexes. The material of the personal unconscious is unique and, as a rule, accessible to awareness. Collective unconscious, according to C. Jung, consists of powerful primary mental images common to all human beings and resulting from the emotional past of humanity, the so-called archetypes(Greek arche– beginning and typos - image). Archetypes– innate ideas or memories that predispose people to perceive, experience, and respond to events in a certain way. The number of archetypes is unlimited, the most significant are a person(Latin – mask), shadow(socially unacceptable sexual and aggressive impulses), anima(internal image of a woman in a man), animus(inner image of a man in a woman), self(the core of the personality around which all other elements are organized and united). According to Jung, the ultimate goal in life is the acquisition and development of selfhood (or the complete realization of the “I”), that is, the formation of a single, unique and integral individual. The development of each person in this direction is unique, it continues throughout life and includes a process called individuation. Individuation is a dynamic and evolving process of integration of many opposing intrapersonal forces and tendencies. Jung called the result of individuation self-realization. Self-realization is available only to capable and highly educated people who have sufficient leisure time for this.
The most famous contribution of C. Jung to psychology is considered to be the two life attitudes (ego orientations) he described: extraversion and introversion, as well as psychological functions: rational - thinking and feeling; irrational - sensation and intuition, of which only one personal orientation and one pair of functions are recognized by a person. The two ego orientations and four psychological functions interact to form eight different personality types.
Jung was one of the first to recognize the contribution of religious, spiritual and even mystical experience to personal development. This is his special role as a predecessor of the humanistic trend in psychology.
Humanistic psychology . The term humanistic psychology was coined by a group of personologists who came together in the early 1960s to create a viable theoretical alternative to the two most important intellectual movements in psychology, behaviorism and psychoanalysis. A. Maslow (1908 – 1970), American psychologist, received recognition as an outstanding representative of the humanistic theory of personality. Humanistic psychology is rooted in existential psychology (lat. existentia– existence) philosophy developed by European thinkers and writers: S. Kierkegaard, K. Jaspers, M. Heidegger, J. - P. Sartre. Many outstanding psychologists also influenced the development of the humanistic approach to personality, such as E. Fromm, G. Allport, K. Rogers, W. Frankl, R. May, L. Binswanger.
The existentialist view of man originates from a concrete and specific awareness of the uniqueness of human existence, existing at a specific moment in time and space. From the existentialist point of view, every person realizes that he is responsible for his own destiny, and therefore experiences pain, despair, loneliness and anxiety. As a free being, man is responsible for realizing as many possibilities as possible. The concept of human development presupposes his search for an authentic and meaningful life. The only “reality” known to anyone is subjective, or personal, but not objective reality. Existentialists emphasize the importance of subjective experience as a fundamental phenomenon in the study and understanding of humanity.
According to the point of view of A. Maslow, each person needs to be studied as a single, unique, organized whole. Maslow argued that every person is naturally endowed with the potential for creative potential for positive growth and improvement; that human nature is essentially good and the destructive forces within him are the result of frustration or unsatisfied basic needs. Maslow believed that people are motivated to find personal goals and this makes their lives significant and meaningful. Maslow proposed that all human needs are innate, or instinctual, and that they are organized into a hierarchical system of priority, or dominance. However, he admitted that there may be exceptions to this hierarchical arrangement of motives, for example, a creative person can develop and express his talent despite social difficulties and social problems. Maslow described man as a “desiring creature” who rarely achieves complete, complete satisfaction of needs. Maslow characterized self-actualization(highest need) as a person’s desire to become what he can become, i.e. develop your own innate potential. Self-actualization does not necessarily have to take the form of creative efforts expressed in the creation of works of art; Specific forms of self-actualization are very diverse. Many people do not see their potential, do not know about its existence and do not understand the benefits of self-improvement; they tend to doubt and even fear their abilities, thereby reducing the chances for self-actualization. Maslow called this phenomenon Jonah complex, which is characterized by a fear of success that prevents a person from striving for self-improvement. Maslow made the assumption that the social and cultural environment often suppresses the tendency to actualize certain norms in relation to some part of the population. An obstacle to self-actualization, according to Maslow, can be a strong negative influence exerted by security needs. Fulfilling the need for self-actualization requires openness to new ideas and experiences, and a person having an independent opinion on basic life issues.
In terms of its positions, especially in terms of understanding the meaning of life, humanistic psychology is the closest of all foreign concepts to the views of domestic psychologists.
The theory of activity of S. L. Rubinstein . The direction of research into the structure of personality in Russian psychology was largely determined by the provisions of S. L. Rubinstein (1889 – 1960), called the subject-activity theory.
S. L. Rubinstein suggested that the human psyche is active and exists as mental activity. A person’s reflection of the external world is interpreted as the activity of the subject, i.e. as the highest level of activity (initially practical). One of the main target functions of mental activity is the management of behavior and emotional state. Activity - in the unity of its components - means the inextricable connection of a person with the outside world. The content of the external world - to the extent of human activity - gradually and increasingly becomes the content of thoughts, feelings, cognition, science, etc. A person and his psyche are formed and manifested in the course of initially practical and then theoretical, but in principle unified activity. The subject in acts of his creative initiative is not only revealed and manifested; it is created and defined in them. Therefore, what he does can define and shape him.
The essence of the human personality finds its final expression in the fact that it not only develops like any organism, but also has its own history. What applies to humanity as a whole cannot but apply to each person. Personal development is mediated by the results of his activities. The mental abilities of a person are not only a prerequisite, but also the result of his actions and deeds; in them he is not only revealed, but also formed. A person who has done something significant becomes a different person. The history of human life should be reduced to a series of external affairs.
Rubinstein’s activities are characterized by the following features:
1) this is always the activity of a subject, or more precisely of subjects carrying out joint activities (there can be no subjectless activity);
2) it is the interaction of a subject with an object, i.e. must be substantive and meaningful;
3) she is – at least to a minimal extent – always creative;
4) independent (which does not contradict compatibility).
Module 3. Social psychology
