Socio-economic and political structure of Rus'. Political and socio-economic structure of Kievan Rus. Craft of Kievan Rus X-XI centuries

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Socio-economic development
Under Prince Yaroslav the Wise, a set of laws of the Old Russian state, “Russian Pravda,” first appeared. These laws were supplemented by Yaroslav’s successors. From “Russian Pravda” we learn about the social organization of the Kievan state. To characterize the social system of the Eastern Slavs, historians usually turn to such sources as “Russian Truth”, “The Tale of Bygone Years”, as well as evidence from Byzantine, Arab and European sources
"Russkaya Pravda" calls the main population of the country free community members - lyudin, or people (hence the collection of tribute from peasant community members - polyudye). All free peasants united into communities (rope)
The 2nd large group of the population is the Smerds. These are perhaps unfree or semi-free princely tributaries. Smerd did not have the right to leave his property to direct heirs, it was transferred to the prince. With the development of feudal relations, this category of the population increased at the expense of free community members
It is known that Oleg and Igor successfully fought with Byzantium and concluded treaties with it in 911 and 944. The purpose of their campaigns was not only to capture military booty, but also to establish profitable trade relations.
The third group of the population is slaves. They are known under different names: servants, serfs. Servants is an early name, serfs is a later name. According to the “Russian Truth”, slaves were completely powerless. A slave could not be a witness in court. For his murder, the owner is not bore responsibility. Not only the slave, but also everyone who helped him was punished for escaping
There were two types of slavery - complete and incomplete. The sources of complete slavery were captivity, selling oneself into slavery, marrying a slave or marrying a slave. There was a category of incomplete slaves - purchases (appeared in the 12th century). These were bankrupt community members who went into debt bondage for a certain loan (kupa). Zakup worked as a servant in the house or in the field, was deprived of personal freedom, but retained his farm and could be redeemed by repaying the debt. Another group of the dependent population of Russia were ordinary people who lost their freedom when concluding an agreement (row). A small part The population consisted of outcasts - people who had lost their social status: slaves who were set free, community members expelled from the ropes, etc. They joined the ranks of artisans or the princely squad
A fairly large category of the population in Rus' were artisans. Cities became centers for the development of crafts. By the 12th century, there were over 60 craft specialties. The growth of cities and the development of crafts were associated with the activities of merchants. The agreement with Byzantium in 944 allows us to speak about the existence of an independent merchant profession
Three directions of feudalization of ancient Russian society are known. Firstly, there was a strengthening of the influence of the prince and the imposition of tribute on free community members, which gradually developed into feudal rent. This is how state property was formed, which later received the name “black”. Secondly, there was a stratification of the neighboring community, from which there were peasant landowners, who then turned into feudal lords, and landless people, whose labor was appropriated by the landowners. Thirdly, the land owners, the feudal lords, planted slaves on the land, who became dependent peasants
Until the mid-11th–12th centuries, the dominant form of feudal property was state property, and the main type of exploitation was the collection of tribute. Gradually, another form of organization of economic life was spreading - feudal patrimony, that is, an estate passed from father to son by inheritance. The owner of the patrimony was the boyar or prince. In Kievan Rus there still remained a significant number of free communal peasants who paid tribute to the prince
Political development
The foreign policy of the Kyiv princes was also subordinated to the tasks of strengthening the feudal state. Oleg, Igor, Svyatoslav, Vladimir and others consistently pursued a policy of annexing neighboring lands, and by the beginning of the 11th century all East Slavic lands were part of a single state
Defense and expansion of state borders represented another task of foreign policy activity
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Agriculture occupied the main place in the economy of Kievan Rus. The basis
it consisted of arable farming. Compared to the primitive communal system
During this period, farming techniques were significantly improved. On
in the black earth south they plowed mainly with a rawl or a plow with a pair of teams
oxen, in the north and in wooded places - a plow into which one was harnessed
horse. Agriculture played such an important role in the life of Ancient Russia that
the sown fields were called life, and the main grain for each area was called zhitom
(from the verb “to live”).
By the 9th-10th centuries. the fallow system began to be used (when the arable land for some time
time was wasted). Two-field and three-field with spring and
winter crops. Slash-and-burn agriculture persisted in forests
areas.
Peasant farms had horses, cows, sheep, pigs, goats,
Domestic bird. Help was fishing, hunting, beekeeping (prey
honey).
Subsistence farming then dominated in Rus', in which almost everything
the necessities of life were produced in every household.
Crafts were of great importance in the economic life of Kievan Rus. Main
the centers of its concentration were ancient Russian cities, but separate branches
developed in villages as well.
The most important industry was ferrous metallurgy, which, together with agriculture, was
the basis of the country's economic development. Iron was mined from swamp ores,
which the territory of Ancient Rus' is rich in. Iron processing, manufacturing from
numerous things for the economy, military affairs and everyday life were carried out
in blacksmith shops. Old Russian blacksmiths owned many
technological methods of iron processing: forging, welding, cementing,
turning, inlaying with non-ferrous metals, polishing. Old Russian word
“blacksmith” also meant a craftsman who worked with non-ferrous metals.
“Blacksmiths of gold, silver and copper” achieved exceptional skill in
making jewelry.
The head of the Old Russian state was the Grand Duke of Kiev, who was at the same time the head of the feudal hierarchy, legislator, military leader, recipient of tribute and supreme judge. Such a wide range of his powers gave grounds for a number of authors (N. Karamzin) to claim that he was an autocratic monarch. However, most historians (N. Kostomarov, V. Klyuchevsky, M. Tikhomirov, A. Kuzmin) believe that the power of the great Kiev prince was significantly limited: first by the council of the tribal nobility and the people's veche, and later by the senior princely squad and the Boyar Duma. At the same time, a number of modern authors (I. Froyanov, A. Dvornichenko) generally deny the monarchical nature of the Old Russian state and argue that the main political role in pre-Mongol Russia belonged to the people's council.
The power of the Great Prince of Kiev was hereditary and passed on according to the ladder principle, that is, to the next most senior appanage prince (younger brother or eldest nephew). However, it must be said that this principle was violated quite often, and the struggle for the grand-ducal throne between the appanage princes of the “Rurik House” was a characteristic feature of the political system of Ancient Russia.

Formation of the Old Russian state - Kievan Rus

The state of Kievan Rus was created at the end of the 9th century.

The chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” (12th century) tells that the Slavs paid tribute to the Varangians. Then they drove the Varangians overseas. Rurik began to reign in Novgorod, Sineus in Beloozero, and Truvor in the city of Izborsk. Two years later, Sineus and Truvor died, and all power passed to Rurik. Two of Rurik's squad - Askold and Dir - went south and began to reign in Kyiv. In 879 Rurik died. His relative Oleg began to rule, since Rurik’s son Igor was still a minor. After 3 years (in 882), Oleg and his squad seized power in Kyiv. Thus, Kiev and Novgorod united under the rule of one prince.

Norman theory. (Bayer, Miller, Schletser, invited back under Peter I). They made the assumption that the name of the Russian Empire is of Scandinavian origin, and that the state of Kievan Rus itself was created by the Varangians. “Rus” is translated from Old Swedish as the verb “to row”; the Rus are rowers. Perhaps “Rus” is the name of the Varangian tribe, from which Rurik came. At first, the Varangian warriors were called Rus, and then this word gradually passed on to the Slavs. German scientists decided that the Varangians were immigrants from the West, which means that the Germans created the state of Kievan Rus.

Anti-Norman theory. (XYIII century, with daughter Peter I - Elizaveta Petrovna) She didn’t like the statement German scientists that the Russian state was created by immigrants from the West. She asked Lomonosov to look into this issue. Lomonosov M.V. did not deny the fact of Rurik’s existence, but denied his Scandinavian origin. The anti-Norman theory intensified in the 30s of the 20th century. When the Nazis came to power in Germany in 1933. Stalin gave the task to refute the Norman theory. => South of Kyiv on the Ros River lived the Ros (Ross) tribe. The Ros River flows into the Dnieper and this is where the name Rus comes from. The anti-Norman theory tries to prove that the state of Kievan Rus was created by the Slavs themselves.

Socio-economic prerequisites for the emergence of the state:

A change in the tools of agricultural labor (the plow appeared) and an increase in labor productivity, the emergence of a surplus product.

Separation of cattle breeding from agriculture.

Separation of crafts from agriculture.

The growth of cities and the development of trade.

The emergence of private property.

The emergence of property and social inequalities.

Political background:

Strengthening the power of elders and tribal leaders.

Formation of large tribal unions.

The need for protection from external enemies - nomads.

Socio-economic and political system of Kievan Rus

Kievan Rus was an early feudal state. It existed from the end of the 9th to the beginning of the 12th century (approximately 250 years).

The head of state was the Grand Duke - the highest military leader, judge, legislator, recipient of tribute. He led foreign policy, declared war, made peace, and appointed officials. His power was limited:

Council under the prince: military nobility, city elders, clergy (since 988).

Veche - a people's assembly: all are free. Any issues were discussed.

Appanage princes - local tribal nobility.

The first rulers of K.R.: Oleg (882-912), Igor (913-945), Olga - Igor’s wife (945-964).

The unification of all East Slavic and part of the Finnish tribes.

Acquisition of overseas markets for Russian trade and protection of trade routes.

Protection of the borders of Russian land.

The source of income for the prince and his squad is the tribute paid by the conquered tribes. Olga organized the collection of tribute and established its size.

The son of Igor and Olga, Prince Svyatoslav, made campaigns against Danube Bulgaria and Byzantium, and also defeated the Khazar Khaganate.

Under Svyatoslav's son, Vladimir the Saint, Christianity was adopted in Rus' in 988.

Socio-economic system:

Ch. branch of the economy - arable farming, cattle breeding. Add. industries: fishing, hunting. Rus' was a country of cities (more than 300) - in the 12th century.

Kievan Rus reached its peak under Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054). In 1036, he defeated the Pechenegs near Kiev and ensured the security of the eastern and southern borders of the state. In the Baltic states, he founded the city of Yuryev and established the position of Rus' there. Under him, writing and literacy were spread, schools were opened for the children of the boyars. Higher school - in the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery. The largest library is in St. Sophia Cathedral. Under him, the first set of laws in Rus' appeared - “Russian Truth”, which was in force throughout the 11th-13th centuries.

Society in Kievan Rus was divided into

Free (nobility, warriors, clergy, merchants, artisans, free peasants)

Semi-free (purchases, rank and file)

Dependents (slaves: slaves and servants)

The main cell of the feud. the farm was a patrimony. The votchina consisted of a princely or boyar estate and the vervey communities dependent on it. The patrimonial economy was inherited and had a subsistence character. At the head of the patrimonial administration was fireman.

3. Feudal fragmentation in Rus': its causes and consequences

Feudal fragmentation in Russia existed from the beginning of the XII to the end of the XY centuries. (350 years).

Economic reasons:

1. Successes in agriculture

2. The growth of cities as centers of craft and trade, as centers of individual territories. Craft development. More than 60 craft specialties.

3. Subsistence farming dominated.

Political reasons:

1. The desire to pass on wealth to the son. “Otchina” is the father’s legacy.

2. As a result of the process of “settlement of the squad on the land,” the military elite turns into landowning boyars (feudal lords) and strives to expand feudal land tenure and independence.

3. Immunities are formed. The Kiev prince transfers a number of rights to the vassals: the right of court, the right to collect taxes.

4. Tribute turns into a fief. rent. Tribute to the prince for protection, rent to the owner of the land.

5. Feudal lords create local squads, their own apparatus of power.

6. There is an increase in the power of the department. feudal lords and they do not want to obey Kyiv.

7. To ser. XII century loses its knowledge of the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” -> “the amber route”.

8. The Principality of Kiev itself fell into decline due to the raids of the nomadic Polovtsians.

The process of disintegration of the country was slightly slowed down by V. Monomakh (1113-1125). He was the grandson of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Monomakh. V. Monomakh became a prince at the age of 60. His son Mstislav the Great (1125-1132) managed to continue his father’s policies and maintain what he had achieved. But immediately after his death the division of Rus' begins. At the beginning of the feud. fragmentation, there were 15 large and small principalities, and in the beginning. XIX century It was already the peak of the feud. fragmentation - » 250 principalities. There were 3 centers: the Vladimir-Suzdal kingdom, the Galicia-Volyn kingdom and the Novgorod feud. republic.

Mongol campaigns in Rus'.

In Mongolia, the Mongolian tribes were united into a single state. The head of the state is Timuchin (Genghis Khan). It was early feudal. state., only Mongolian feudalism had features: it was nomadic. This is how a whole empire is formed, which is divided into uluses:

East part of the ulus - Zap. Siberia – st. son of Jochi - Blue or White Horde;

Zap. part - Batu - Golden Horde.

In 1227, Jochi died (poisoned), then Genghis Khan (fell from his horse).

In 1236, Batu conquered Volga Bulgaria.

There are two campaigns of Batu (grandson of Genghis Khan) to Rus'.

1 hike 1237-1238, but Rus' had not yet been subjugated, although a significant part of northeastern Russia was defeated. Batu’s troops did not reach 100 versts to Novgorod and turned back due to the spring thaw (1238) or the Novgorodians paid off by paying for 100 versts from the city of dan.

2 hike 1239-1240 Batu struck the main blow on the southern Russian lands: Galicia-Volyn, Kiev. Kyiv, Murom, Galich, Chernigov and others fell. In total, only Novgorod, Pskov, and the Vitebsk Principality were not affected.

Related information.

The period of existence of Kievan Rus was the end of the 9th - beginning of the 12th centuries. By political structure This was union of tribal principalities, city-states under the supreme authority of the Kyiv prince. At the first stage, submission to the Kyiv prince was expressed in the payment of tribute, then the tribal principalities were directly subordinated, i.e. local reign was liquidated, and a representative of the Kyiv dynasty was appointed as governor. Territories within a single state ruled by princes - vassals Kyiv ruler, received the name parish.

• 1) the unification of all Slavic (and part of the Finnish) tribes under the rule of the Kyiv prince;
• 2) acquisition of overseas markets and protection of trade routes;
• 3) protecting borders from attacks by steppe nomads;
• 4) internal function - collection of tribute.

Founder of the State Oleg (882 - 912) makes campaigns against Constantinople in 907 and 911. In 911, a Russian-Byzantine trade agreement was concluded - the first official monument of writing in Rus' - which granted Russian merchants the right to duty-free trade in Constantinople. At the same time, this agreement also ensured the political interests of Byzantium; the Slavs were obliged to provide troops to fight the main enemy of the Byzantine Empire in the East - the Arab Caliphate.

Oleg's successor on the Kiev throne becomes Igor (912 - 945). In 945, he demanded additional tribute from the Drevlyans, but they rebelled and killed the greedy prince. Igor's wife Olga (945 - 957 ), being regent for her young son Svyatoslav, she brutally took revenge on the Drevlyans for the death of her husband. However, she for the first time streamlined the collection of tribute, establishing its sizes - lessons and collection points - churchyards. In 957, Olga traveled to Constantinople, where she was probably baptized.

Svyatoslav (957 - 972)- a prominent commander, led a number of successful campaigns, incl. to the North Caucasus, conquered the Yasovs (Ossetians), Kasogs (Circassians or Chechens). The campaigns were especially successful in 965, when he defeated the Khazars (as a result, the Khazar Kaganate ceased to exist), defeated the Danube Bulgarians, and even wanted to move the capital from Kyiv to the Danube. But in 971 Svyatoslav was defeated by Byzantium. He was forced to leave Bulgaria, accepted an obligation not to attack Byzantium, and joint actions against common enemies were envisaged.

The heyday of Kievan Rus occurs under one of the younger sons of Svyatoslav - Vladimir Red Sun (Saint) (978 - 1015 ). With it, the territorial structure of the state is finally formalized. He placed his sons in charge in the nine largest centers of Rus'.

Relatively socio-political structure And forms of government in the Old Russian state there are different points of view. The first is based on the fact that in the 9th-10th centuries. in Rus' was still preserved " three-stage management model" - people's assembly ( veche), council of elders (" city ​​elders", i.e. urban), prince. The tribal elite (elders) and the prince were part of the community under the terms of an agreement (“ row"), depended on her in many ways. The People's Assembly continued to resolve the most important issues (judicial, military, etc.), there was still no large separation of power from the people and differentiation among free people. In addition, the basis of the relationship in many respects still remains tribal communications, the former territory of tribal settlement. True, a senior and junior squad (“boyars” and “youths”) had already emerged, but they did not completely supplant the people’s militia.

Based on this V.V. Mavrodin, AND I. Froyanov and some other historians believe that the socio-political system of Kievan Rus is not feudalism, but the highest stage of development of tribal relations. The prince is a tribal leader and, therefore, Ancient Rus' - tribal super union. Feudalism finally took shape only after the Mongol conquest in the 13th century.

However, most historians are of the opinion that Kievan Rus is early feudal monarchy . By the 11th century. noticeable changes are taking place in the social structure of ancient Russian society, which records “ Russian Truth" - the first Russian code of laws (code of laws). Its oldest version was created under the son of Vladimir the Saint - Yaroslav Wise (1019 -1054 ), contains only 17 articles; the main thing in it is the limitation of blood feud to the circle of immediate relatives. Second edition - “ Truth Yaroslavich", i.e. sons and descendants of Yaroslav (1072). Here the fine for the murder of a noble person is 15 times greater than for the murder of an ordinary community member. Third edition Vladimir Monomakh(1113) - “Charter on purchases and interest” - supplemented with articles on new economic relations (usury, etc.).

The Russian Pravda mentions various categories dependent population: servants- house servants, serfs- slaves, stinkers- community members (free and dependent), procurement- became dependent on the loan received (“kupa”), ryadovichi- worked according to a “row”, an agreement. Special category - outcasts, i.e. people expelled from the community. Thus, in society there is social stratification.

Gradually begins to form private property on land- the economic basis of feudalism. However feudal estate(hereditary land ownership of princes, boyars, old tribal nobility), according to V.O. Klyuchevsky, was at that time only “an island in the sea of ​​free communal land ownership.” From the 11th century appear specific principalities- fiefdoms of individual princely families.

Formation takes place political organization Kievan Rus. Grand Duke of Kyiv represented monarchical element of the state, but he did not possess the fullness of autocratic power. In fact, the entire Rurik family ruled, the eldest in the family was on the Kiev throne ( next order inheritance, by seniority). The Kyiv prince was supposed to hold council with Boyar Duma(boyars, i.e. the prince’s servants, his vassals), which included senior warriors, the old tribal nobility (tribal aristocracy), and the city elite. A management apparatus is being formed - mayors, governors, thousand, mytniks, tiuns, appointed by the prince to perform military, judicial functions, collect taxes, etc. The first set of laws is being created - “Russian Truth”. At the same time, the emerging institutions of the state were combined with remnants of previous tribal relations - people's assembly And people's militia.

Based on this characteristic of socio-economic and political relations in Kievan Rus, the opinion was established that it is early feudal monarchy. This was the initial stage feudalization. Feudalism- agrarian society of the Middle Ages, which is characterized by: 1) large land ownership with small peasant farms subordinate to it; 2) closed class organization; 3) subsistence farming; 4) the dominance of religion in the spiritual sphere.

Political structure of Kievan Rus

Kievan Rus is an early feudal monarchy. At its head was the Grand Duke of Kyiv. After the adoption of Eastern Christianity, princes are perceived as persons sanctified by the power established by God.

The powers of the prince are to collect taxes; legislative activity; judicial and administrative functions; military functions (the prince was the supreme military leader); representing the state in foreign relations.

Power was inherited by the eldest in the family.

In Kievan Rus there was no distinction between government bodies and bodies managing the affairs of the Grand Duke.

Often entrusting the court to his deputies, “mayors and tiuns,” the prince headed the administration of the principality. He appointed regional managers - “posadniks”. In his activities, the prince relied on the council of elders (princely council). The council is an advisory body that is not legally formalized, but has serious influence on the monarch in resolving the most important legislative and religious issues, foreign policy problems, and the collection of polyudia. The council consisted of boyars, city nobility, and representatives of the highest clergy. The obligation for the prince to confer with them was established by custom.

Strengthening the feudal lords in the 11th century. caused the emergence of a new authority - the council, i.e. feudal congress. At the congress, issues of inter-princely disputes, war and peace, military campaigns, and division of lands were resolved.

In the Old Russian state there was a veche. A veche is a people's meeting for discussing and resolving important common matters. All free residents of the city and adjacent settlements took part in the meeting. The method of convening was varied: through heralds (birichi), and by ringing a bell (in Novgorod). The veche resolved issues of taxation, city defense and organization of military campaigns. The decisions of the veche were binding on everyone.

Socio-economic system of Kievan Rus

There were two forms of production organization:

· votchina (or otchina) - paternal possession, inherited from father to son, the owner of the votchina was a prince or boyar;

· the lands of the community members, not yet subject to private feudal lords, they paid tribute to the Grand Duke in favor of the state.

The main population of the country were free people who did not know class barriers and divisions.

The entire free population enjoyed the same rights, but its various groups differed from each other in their actual status, wealth and social influence.

The upper stratum of the population or boyars consisted of two elements:

· “Zemstvo boyars”, the local aristocracy that arose before the formation of the Old Russian state. These were the descendants of clan elders and clan princes, large traders, armed merchants;

· “princely men”, princely boyars, the highest layer of warriors.

During the XI-XII centuries. there is a rapprochement and merging of the zemstvo and princely boyars. As a result of this process, the boyars turn into feudal lords.

The middle strata of the population include the ordinary mass of princely warriors and the middle strata of the urban merchants.

The lower strata - the urban and rural common people - are “smerds”. They made up the bulk of the population, were personally free and united in territorial communities. The Smerds paid tribute to the prince, and the boyars were economically dependent on him.

A significant layer of the dependent population were slaves who lived on the lands of large landowners.

There were two types of servitude: complete and incomplete.

Full – “servants”, slaves, etc. - cultivated the boyar lands, served their yards.

Incomplete - purchases that went into bondage to the prince, since they could not return the loan to him; ryadovichi - those who entered into a row (agreement) with the feudal lord; outcast - expelled from the community.

Slavery in Rus' was patriarchal in nature.

Related information:

1. I. DISORDERS OF MOTOR, EMOTIONAL-VOLITIONARY SPHERES AND voluntary BEHAVIOR IN PERSONS WITH DYSLALIA, RHINOLALIA, DYSARTHRIA, AND VOICE DISORDERS