Doctor of Philosophy in Physics K. ZLOSCHASTYEV (National Autonomous University of Mexico, Institute of Nuclear Research, Department of Gravity and Field Theory).

Ending. For the beginning, see "Science and Life" No.

Science and life // Illustrations

Rod deformation. Despite the fact that both the rod and the force acting on it are initially symmetrical with respect to the axis of rotation of the rod, the result of deformation can break this symmetry. © Kostelecky & Scientific American.

Comparison of clock progress: on the left - the International Space Station, where two clocks will be installed; on the right are clocks operating on different physical principles: quantum transitions in an atom (bottom) and microwaves in a resonating chamber (top).

Experiment with antihydrogen.

Spin pendulum.

I"LL BE BACK?

After the creation of the theory of relativity, the ether was no longer needed and was sent into exile. But was the expulsion final and irrevocable? For a hundred years, Einstein’s theory has demonstrated its validity in numerous experiments and observations both on Earth and in the space around us, and so far there is no reason to replace it with something else. But are the theory of relativity and the ether mutually exclusive concepts? Paradoxically, no! Under certain conditions, the ether and the selected frame of reference can exist without contradicting the theory of relativity, at least its fundamental part, which is confirmed experimentally. To understand how this can be, we must delve into the very heart of Einstein's theory - Lorentz symmetry.

While studying Maxwell's equations and the Michelson-Morley experiment, in 1899 Hendrik Lorentz noticed that under Galilean transformations (consisting of rotations in three-dimensional space, while time is absolutely unchanged when moving to another frame of reference), Maxwell's equations do not remain unchanged. Lorentz concluded that the equations of electrodynamics have symmetry only with respect to certain new transformations. (Similar results were independently obtained even earlier: by Waldemar Voit in 1887 and Joseph Larmore in 1897.) In these transformations, in addition to three-dimensional spatial rotations, time was additionally transformed along with space. In other words, three-dimensional space and time were combined into a single four-dimensional object: space-time. In 1905, the great French mathematician Henri Poincaré called these transformations Lorentzian, and Einstein took them as the basis for his special theory of relativity(ONE HUNDRED). He postulated that the laws of physics must be the same for all observers in inertial(moving without acceleration) reference systems, and the transition formulas between the latter are given not by Galilean, but by Lorentzian transformations. This postulate was called Lorentz observer invariance(LIN) and within the framework of the theory of relativity should not be violated in any case.

However, in Einstein's theory there is another type of Lorentz symmetry - Lorentz invariance of a particle(LICH), the violation of which, although it does not fit into the framework of the standard SRT, still does not require a radical revision of the theory, provided that the LIN is preserved. To understand the difference between LIN and LIC, let's look at examples. Let's take two observers, one of whom is on the platform, and the other is sitting on a train passing by without accelerating. LIN means that the laws of physics must be the same for them. Now let the observer on the train stand up and begin to move relative to the train without acceleration. LICH means that the laws of physics must still be the same for these observers. In this case, LIN and LICH are one and the same thing - a moving observer on a train simply creates a third inertial frame of reference. However, it can be shown that in some cases the LICH and LIN are not identical, and therefore, when the LIN is preserved, a violation of the LICH can occur. Understanding this phenomenon requires introducing the concept spontaneously broken symmetry. We will not go into mathematical details, just turn to analogies.

Analogy one. The equations of Newton's theory of gravity, which govern the laws of planetary motion, are three-dimensional rotational symmetry(that is, they are invariant under rotation transformations in three-dimensional space). However, the Solar System, being a solution to these equations, nevertheless violates this symmetry, since the trajectories of the planets are located not on the surface of a sphere, but on a plane with an axis of rotation. Group of three-dimensional rotations (group O(3), mathematically speaking) on ​​a specific solution spontaneously breaks down to a group of two-dimensional rotations on the plane O(2).

Analogy two. Let's place the rod vertically and apply a vertical downward force to its upper end. Despite the fact that the force acts strictly vertically and the rod is initially absolutely straight, it will bend to the side, and the direction of the bend will be random (spontaneous). The solution (the shape of the rod after deformation) is said to spontaneously break the initial symmetry group of two-dimensional rotations on a plane perpendicular to the rod.

Analogy three. Previous discussions concerned spontaneous breaking of rotational symmetry O(3). It's time for a more general Lorentz symmetry, SO(1.3). Let's imagine that we have shrunk so much that we were able to penetrate inside the magnet. There we will see many magnetic dipoles (domains) aligned in one direction, which is called direction of magnetization. Conservation of LIN means that no matter what angle we are at in relation to the direction of magnetization, the laws of physics should not change. Consequently, the movement of any charged particle inside a magnet should not depend on whether we are standing sideways in relation to its trajectory or facing it. However, the movement of a particle that would move in our face will be different from the movement of the same particle sideways, since the Lorentz force acting on the particle depends on the angle between the particle velocity vectors and the direction of the magnetic field. In this case, they say that the LICH is spontaneously disrupted by the background magnetic field (which created a preferred direction in space), while the LIN is preserved.

In other words, although equations consistent with Einstein's theory of relativity preserve Lorentz symmetry, some of their solutions may break it! Then we can easily explain why we have not yet discovered deviations from the SRT: simply the overwhelming majority of solutions that physically realize one or another observed phenomenon or effect retain Lorentz symmetry, and only a few do not (or the deviations are so small that they still lie outside beyond our experimental capabilities). Ether may be just such a LICH-violating solution to some field equations that are fully compatible with LIN. Question: what are the fields that play the role of ether, do they exist, how can they be described theoretically and detected experimentally?

THEORIES ALLOWING VIOLATION OF LORENTZ SYMMETRY

Quite a lot of theoretical examples when Lorentz symmetry can be broken (both spontaneously and completely) are already known. We will present only the most interesting of them.

Standard Model Vacuum. The Standard Model (SM) is the generally accepted relativistic quantum field theory that describes the strong, electromagnetic and weak interactions. As is known, in quantum theory the physical vacuum is not an absolute void; it is filled with particles and antiparticles that are born and destroyed. This fluctuating “quantum foam” can be thought of as a type of ether.

Space-time in quantum theory of gravity. In quantum gravity, the subject of quantization is space-time itself. It is assumed that on very small scales (usually on the order of the Planck length, that is, about 10 -33 cm) it is not continuous, but may represent either a set of some multidimensional membranes ( N-branes, as string theorists call them M-theories - see "Science and Life" No. 2, 3, 1997), or the so-called spin foam, consisting of volume and area quanta (as claimed by supporters of the theory of loop quantum gravity). In each of these cases, Lorentz symmetry can be broken.

String theory. In 1989–1991, Alan Kostelecky, Stuart Samuel, and Robertus Potting demonstrated how Lorentz and CPT-symmetries can occur in superstring theory. This is not surprising, however, since superstring theory is still far from complete: it works well in the high-energy limit, when spacetime is 10- or 11-dimensional, but does not have a single limit for low energies, when the dimensionality of spacetime tends to to four (the so-called landscape problem). Therefore, in the latter case, it still predicts almost anything.

M-theory. During the second "superstring revolution" in the 1990s, it was realized that all five 10-dimensional superstring theories are related by duality transformations and therefore turn out to be special cases of a single theory called M-a theory that “lives” in the number of dimensions one more - 11-dimensional. The specific form of the theory is still unknown, but some of its properties and solutions (describing multidimensional membranes) are known. In particular, it is known that M-the theory does not have to be Lorentz-invariant (and not only in the sense of LICH, but also in the sense of LIN). Moreover, it could be something fundamentally new, radically different from standard quantum field theory and relativity theory.

Noncommutative field theories. In these exotic theories, space-time coordinates are non-commutative operators, that is, for example, the result of multiplying the coordinate x to coordinate y does not coincide with the result of coordinate multiplication y to coordinate x, and Lorentz symmetry is also broken. This also includes non-associative field theories, in which, for example, ( x x y) x z x x x ( y x z) - non-Archimedean field theories (where the field of numbers is assumed to be different from the classical one), and their various compilations.

Theories of gravity with a scalar field. String theory and most dynamical models of the Universe predict the existence of a special type of fundamental interaction - global scalar field, one of the most likely candidates for the role of “dark energy”, or “quintessence”. Having very low energy and a wavelength comparable to the size of the Universe, this field can create a background that disrupts the LICH. TeVeS, the tensor-vector-scalar theory of gravity, developed by Bekenstein as a relativistic analogue of the modified Milgrom mechanics, can also be included in this group. However, TeVeS, in the opinion of many, has acquired not only the advantages of Milgrom’s theory, but, unfortunately, also many of its serious disadvantages.

"Einstein Ether" Jacobson-Mattinly. This is a new vector ether theory proposed by Ted Jacobson and David Mattingly from the University of Maryland, in the development of which the author is involved. It can be assumed that there is a global vector field, which (unlike the electromagnetic field) does not disappear even far from all charges and masses. Far from them, this field is described by a constant four-vector of unit length. The reference frame that accompanies it is isolated and, thus, violates LICH (but not LIN, since the vector field is considered relativistic and all equations have Lorentz symmetry).

Extended Standard Model (SME, or PSM). About ten years ago, Don Colladay and the aforementioned Kostelecki and Potting proposed extending the Standard Model with components that violate PIM but not LIN. Thus, this is a theory in which the violation of Lorentz symmetry is already inherent. Naturally, the RSM is adjusted so as not to contradict the usual standard model (SM), at least that part of it that has been verified experimentally. According to the creators, the differences between RSM and SM should appear at higher energies, for example, in the early Universe or at projected accelerators. By the way, I learned about RSM from my co-author and department colleague Daniel Sudarsky, who himself made a significant contribution to the development of the theory, showing, together with his co-authors in 2002, how quantum gravity and broken LICH can influence the dynamics of particles in the cosmic microwave radiation.

NOW WE WILL CHECK THEM, NOW WE WILL COMPARE THEM...

There are a lot of experiments to search for violation of Lorentz symmetry and a selected reference frame, and they are all different, and many of them are not direct, but indirect. For example, there are experiments that look for violations of the principle CPT symmetries, which states that all the laws of physics should not change with the simultaneous application of three transformations: replacing particles with antiparticles ( C-transformation), mirror reflection of space ( P-transformation) and time reversal ( T-transformation). The point is that from the Bell-Pauli-Luders theorem it follows that the violation CPT-symmetry entails violation of Lorentz symmetry. This information is very useful, since in some physical situations the former is much easier to detect directly than the latter.

Experiments a la Michelson-Morley. As mentioned above, they are used to try to detect the anisotropy of the speed of light. Currently, the most accurate experiments use resonating chambers ( resonant cavity): The chamber is rotated on a table and changes in the frequencies of the microwaves inside it are examined. John Lipa's group at Stanford University uses superconducting chambers. The team of Achim Peters and Stefan Schiller from the Humboldt University of Berlin and the University of Düsseldorf uses laser light in sapphire resonators. Despite the constantly increasing accuracy of experiments (relative accuracies already reach 10 -15), no deviations from the predictions of SRT have yet been discovered.

Nuclear spin precession. In 1960, Vernon Hughes and, independently, Ron Drever measured the spin precession of the lithium-7 nucleus as the magnetic field rotated with the Earth relative to our Galaxy. No deviations from SRT predictions were found.

Neutrino oscillations? At one time, the discovery of the phenomenon of transformation of some types of neutrinos into others (oscillations - see "Science and Life" No.) caused a furor, since this meant that neutrinos had a rest mass, even if very small, on the order of an electron volt. The breaking of Lorentz symmetry should in principle affect the oscillations, so that future experimental data may answer whether this symmetry is preserved in the neutrino system or not.

K-meson oscillations. The weak interaction forces the K-meson (kaon) to turn into an antikaon during its “life” and then back - oscillate. These oscillations are so precisely balanced that the slightest disturbance CPT-symmetry would lead to a noticeable effect. One of the most accurate experiments was carried out by the KTeV collaboration at the Tevatron accelerator (Fermi National Laboratory). Result: in kaon oscillations CPT-symmetry is preserved with an accuracy of 10 -21.

Experiments with antimatter. Many high-precision CPT-Experiments with antimatter have been carried out currently. Among them: a comparison of anomalous magnetic moments of electron and positron in Penning traps made by Hans Dehmelt's group at the University of Washington, proton-antiproton experiments at CERN carried out by Gerald Gabrielse's group from Harvard. No violations CPT-symmetry has not yet been discovered.

Comparison of clocks. Two high-precision clocks are taken, which use different physical effects and, therefore, should respond differently to a possible violation of Lorentz symmetry. As a result, a path difference should arise, which will be a signal that the symmetry is broken. Experiments on Earth, conducted in the laboratory of Ronald Walsworth at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics and other institutions, have achieved impressive precision: Lorentz symmetry has been shown to be preserved to within 10 -27 for different types of clocks. But this is not the limit: accuracy should improve significantly if the instruments are launched into space. Several orbital experiments - ACES, PARCS, RACE and SUMO - are planned to be launched in the near future on board the International Space Station.

Light from distant galaxies. By measuring the polarization of light coming from distant galaxies in the infrared, optical and ultraviolet ranges, it is possible to achieve high accuracy in determining a possible violation CPT-symmetry in the early Universe. Kostelecki and Matthew Mewes of Indiana University showed that for such light this symmetry is preserved to within 10 -32 . In 1990, Roman Jackiw's group at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology substantiated an even more precise limit - 10 -42.

Cosmic rays? There is a certain mystery associated with ultra-high-energy cosmic rays coming to us from space. Theory predicts that the energy of such rays cannot be higher than a certain threshold value - the so-called Greisen-Zatsepin-Kuzmin limit (GZK cutoff), which calculated that particles with energies above 5 ґ 10 19 electronvolts should actively interact with cosmic microwave radiation at their path and waste energy on the birth of pi-mesons. Observational data exceeds this threshold by orders of magnitude! There are many theories that explain this effect without invoking the Lorentz symmetry breaking hypothesis, but so far none of them has become dominant. At the same time, the theory proposed in 1998 by Sidney Coleman and Nobel laureate Sheldon Glashow from Harvard suggests that the phenomenon of exceeding the threshold is explained by the violation of Lorentz symmetry.

Comparison of hydrogen and antihydrogen. If CPT-symmetry is broken, then matter and antimatter should behave differently. Two experiments at CERN near Geneva - ATHENA and ATRAP - look for differences in the emission spectra between hydrogen atoms (proton plus electron) and antihydrogen (antiproton plus positron). No differences have been found yet.

Spin pendulum. This experiment, conducted by Eric Adelberger and Blaine Heckel of the University of Washington, uses a material in which the electron spins are aligned in the same direction, thereby creating an overall macroscopic spin momentum. A torsion pendulum made of such a material is placed inside a shell, insulated from the external magnetic field (by the way, insulation was perhaps the most difficult task). The spin-dependent violation of Lorentz symmetry should manifest itself in the form of small perturbations in the oscillations, which would depend on the orientation of the pendulum. The absence of such perturbations made it possible to establish that in this system Lorentz symmetry is preserved with an accuracy of 10 -29.

EPILOGUE

There is an opinion: Einstein’s theory has become so firmly integrated with modern science that physicists have already forgotten to think about its overthrow. The real situation is just the opposite: a significant number of specialists all over the world are busy searching for facts, experimental and theoretical, that could... no, not refute it, that would be too naive, but find the limits of applicability of the theory of relativity. While these efforts were unsuccessful, the theory turned out to fit very well with reality. But, of course, someday this will happen (remember, for example, that a completely consistent theory of quantum gravity has not yet been created), and Einstein’s theory will be replaced by another, more general one (who knows, maybe there will be a place for the ether in it ?).

But the strength of physics lies in its continuity. Each new theory must include the previous one, as was the case with the replacement of mechanics and Newton's theory of gravity with the special and general theories of relativity. And just as Newton's theory continues to find its application, so Einstein's theory will remain useful to mankind for many centuries. We can only feel sorry for the poor students of the future, who will have to study Newton's theory, Einstein's theory, and X-theory... However, this is for the best - man does not live by marshmallows alone.

Literature

Will K. Theory and experiment in gravitational physics. - M.: Energoatomizdat, 1985, 294 p.

Eling S., Jacobson T., Mattingly D. Einstein-Aether Theory. - gr-qc/0410001.

Bear D. et al. 2000 Limit on Lorentz and CPT violation of the neutron using a two-species noble-gas maser// Phys. Rev. Lett. 85 5038.

Bluhm R. et al. 2002 Clock-comparison tests of CPT and Lorentz symmetry in space// Phys. Rev. Lett. 88 090801.

Carroll S., Field G. and Jackiw R. 1990 Limits on a Lorentz- and parity-violating modification of electrodynamics // Phys. Rev. D 41 1231.

Greenberg O. 2002 CPT violation implies violation of Lorentz invariance// Phys. Rev. Lett. 89 231602.

Kostelecky A. and Mewes M. 2002 Signals for Lorentz violation in electrodynamics// Phys. Rev. D 66 056005.

Lipa J. et al. 2003 New limit on signals of Lorentz violation in electrodynamics// Phys. Rev. Lett. 90 060403.

Muller H. et al. 2003 Modern Michelson-Morley experiment using cryogenic optical resonators// Phys. Rev. Lett. 91 020401.

Sudarsky D., Urrutia L. and Vucetich H. 2002 Observational bounds on quantum gravity signals using existing data// Phys. Rev. Lett. 89 231301.

Wolf P. et al. 2003 Tests of Lorentz invariance using a microwave resonator// Phys. Rev. Lett. 90 060402.

Details for the curious

LORENTZ AND GALILEO TRANSFORMATIONS

If the inertial reference system (IRS) K" moves relative to ISO K at constant speed V along the axis x, and the origins coincide at the initial moment of time in both systems, then the Lorentz transformations have the form

Where c- speed of light in vacuum.

Formulas expressing the inverse transformation, that is x",y",z",t" through x,y,z,t can be obtained as a replacement V on V" = - V. It can be noted that in the case when , the Lorentz transformations turn into Galilean transformations:

x" = x + ut, y" = y, z" = z, t" = t.

The same thing happens when V/c> 0. This suggests that the special theory of relativity coincides with Newtonian mechanics either in a world with infinite speed of light or at speeds small compared to the speed of light.

World broadcast- the world environment, the arena of all physical processes, filling all terrestrial and outer space, ideas about which have accompanied the entire history of natural science since ancient times.

In a generalized form, the ether of the Universe is a solid continuous, extremely mobile, transparent, colorless, odorless and tasteless, viscous, elastic, incompressible matter, without structure and mass, capable of exerting resistance and pressure, forming vortex and toroidal structures (matter), transmit vibrations and waves and are in a state of constant disturbance (voltage) and movement (linear, helical and (or) their various combinations).

Basic Concepts

Simultaneously with the development of theories and models of the ether, the point of view about long-range action and the absence of ether as such in nature developed. In 1910, in “The Principle of Relativity and Its Consequences,” Einstein wrote that “it is impossible to create a satisfactory theory without abandoning the existence of a certain medium filling all space”. He accepted the hypothesis that the ether has no influence on the movement of matter, therefore, it can be abandoned. Later, in “The Ether and the Theory of Relativity” (1920) and “On the Ether” (1924), Einstein changed his view regarding the existence of the ether. However, his previous works resolved the contradictions that had accumulated in physics so well that this circumstance did not affect the attitude towards the ether on the part of the majority of theoretical physicists. 60.

In turn, Maxwell did not use postulates and strictly derived his equations based on Helmholtz’s ideas about the movement of an ideal fluid, which he considered the ether. Maxwell mentioned this several times, and he had a very clear idea of ​​how these equations were obtained. Naturally, no one can create a complete and ideal model overnight. But, nevertheless, his mathematical model turned out to be so good that all electrical engineering is based on his equations. In 1855, in his very first paper, “On Faraday's lines of force,” he wrote down the first system of electrodynamics equations in differential form. In his work “On Physical Lines of Force” (1861–1862), consisting of four parts, he expanded the system. That is, by 1862 the formulation of the complete system of electrodynamics equations was actually completed. As can be seen, by this time it was not yet known about the internal structure of atoms. Lenard was engaged in the study of cathode rays, and only by 1892 he invented the discharge tube named after him. This made it possible to study cathode rays independently of the gas discharge. Lenard's experiments led to the discovery of the electron in 1897, but priority for the discovery went to J. Thomson. Rutherford proposed a planetary model of the structure of the atom only in 1911. Today, in the field of nanotechnology, we are faced with problems that we cannot solve using Maxwell's equations. Therefore, there is a need to build simple, visual models to be able to describe the behavior of individual particles, as was done by Maxwell for electric and magnetic fields. This means that it is necessary to return to the sources from which Maxwell began - to the ether.

About the ethereal wind

Ethereal Wind has the most convoluted history of natural history in the modern world. The study of the ethereal wind is of great importance, going beyond the scope of research that has ever been carried out regarding any of the physical phenomena. The first steps in this direction had a decisive effect on the entire natural science of the 20th century. At one time, A. Michelson and E. Morley conducted the first experiments that gave reason to physicists of the 20th century to believe that the ether, the global medium that fills world space, does not exist at all. This belief was so firmly entrenched in the minds of physicists that no positive results could dissuade them of the opposite. Even A. Einstein, in his articles from 1920 to 1924, confidently stated that physics cannot exist without the ether, but this did not change anything.

But adherents of the ether theory believe that ether is a building material that fills the entire cosmic space and without which none of the substances known to man can exist, and all physical interactions and various fields (electric and magnetic) are associated with ether. The idea of ​​ether also surfaced in ancient times. As you know, humanity has existed on the planet for more than 1 million years, and the history of the ancient world that has reached us covers only a period of 10,000 years. We don’t know what man did for the remaining 990,000 years. What civilizations existed then? What kind of science did people do at that time? Modern scientists cannot unravel the mystery of the esoteric knowledge of ancient people.

A number of scientists have carried out extensive work in the field of ethereal wind research. Some of them made a significant contribution to the development and formation of the theory of the ether. It is impossible not to mention the research of the famous American professor at the Case School of Applied Sciences, Dayton Clarence Miller, who devoted his entire life to the study of the ether. But it is not his fault that the results obtained by him and his scientific group were not accepted by his contemporaries and scientists of a later period. At the time of the completion of Miller's work in 1933, the school of relativists (followers of A. Einstein's special theory of relativity) was already firmly on its feet and it made sure that nothing could shake its foundations. This “non-recognition” of the theory of the ether was reinforced by experiments in which unacceptable errors were present and did not lead to the desired effect. They should not be accused of deliberately opposing the theory of the ether, since they could not imagine the nature of the ether, its characteristics and properties, and also did not understand its interaction with other substances, which led to erroneous results in experiments. Such errors include shielding of the interferometer, a device designed to conduct research on the ethereal wind. The device is shielded with metal. As practice shows, metal is a serious reflector of electromagnetic waves, as well as ethereal jets, which leads to a change in the speed of ethereal flows in a closed metal box. This is justified if we talk about measuring the wind that blows outside, looking at an anemometer that is installed in a tightly sealed room. This is an absurd experience that leads to erroneous conclusions. We will not condemn anyone, but give you the right to criticize the articles of R. Kennedy, K. Illingworth, A. Picard and others yourself. There are also erroneous attempts that are aimed at capturing the Doppler effect, which can occur in the presence of ethereal wind, at a mutually stationary source and receiver in the process of electromagnetic oscillations. This is not fantasy, but real facts. In 1958-1962, experiments were carried out by J. Cedarholm and C. Townes, which ended in failure, since the ethereal wind produces a phase shift in the oscillation, but its frequency does not change. In this case, the results cannot change relative to the sensitivity of the measuring instruments.

Thanks to the correct experiments of some researchers - D. Miller, E. Morley and A. Michelson, which took place in the period from 1905 to 1933, the ethereal wind was discovered, and the value of its speed was established with high accuracy for that time. It was found that the direction of the etheric wind is perpendicular to the movement of our planet. It was found that the orbital component of the Earth's movement speed is insignificant against the background of the high cosmic speed of the ethereal wind blowing across the Solar System. At that time, these reasons remained unclear, as well as the reasons for the slowdown in the speed of the ether and the Earth as the height above the surface of the planet decreased. But today, with the advent of ether dynamics - a new direction in modern physics, which is based on the theory of the existence of gaseous ether in nature, this confusion has been eliminated. Proponents of the ether theory present this substance (ether) as a viscous and compressible gas, which provides an explanation for the experiments of Morley, Miller and Michelson, which were aimed at studying the ethereal wind. It also provides an opportunity to evaluate past mistakes that have been made by researchers trying to obtain “null results.”

Today, etherodynamics is taking its first steps. The persistence of relativists opposes the theory of the existence of the ether, which seems to be a real battle between the old dogmas in physics and the new trend that is necessary for moving science in the right direction. Ether will sooner or later be recognized, since without it it is not possible to correctly interpret many physical phenomena in nature, to understand their essence, which, of course, is simply necessary in modern natural science. Without recognition of the ether, progress in many applied areas is not possible. Today, in contrast to the ether, there is a “negative result” of Michelson’s experiment. In order to overcome this obstacle in the recognition of the ether, it was necessary to publish a number of articles by different authors who studied such a phenomenon as the ethereal wind.

We do not encourage you to repeat Michelson's experiment to detect the ethereal wind. To do this, it is enough to analyze the mistakes made using modern technologies and computing equipment. This will allow us to process the results of measurements taken at various altitudes, including readings from interferometers installed on artificial orbital satellites. Since the ether has been rejected in the past and present, it will definitely be accepted in the future.

Based on materials from an article by Doctor of Technical Sciences V.A. Atsyukovsky.

Articles and broadcasts

About the existence of ether

Let's consider several classical experimental evidence of the existence of ether as an integral part of the Universe. Let's start exploring this data.

1. One of the first to touch upon the idea of ​​ether was the Danish astronomer Olaf Roemer. In 1676, he observed the satellite of Jupiter at the Paris Observatory and was surprised by the existing difference in the time of complete revolution of the satellite Io, which depends on the angular distance between our planet and Jupiter in relation to the Sun. During the closest approach between Earth and Jupiter, the orbital cycle is 1.77 days. Roemer's first judgment was that the Earth was in opposition to Jupiter; he did not understand why Io was "delayed" by 22 minutes relative to its closest approach. This difference allowed the astronomer to calculate the speed of light. But at a certain period he discovered an even greater difference when the Earth and Jupiter were in their squares. In the first quadrature, when the Earth moves away from Jupiter, Io's rotation cycle is 15 seconds longer than the average. During the second quadrature, when the Earth approaches Jupiter, this cycle value is 15 seconds less. This effect can only be explained by adding and subtracting the Earth's orbital speed, as well as the speed of light. So we can conclude that such an observation confirms the correctness of the classical non-relativistic equation c = c + v.
2. There are many experiments conducted by various scientists that involve adding the speed of light with the speed indicators of various planets and stars. The radar studies of Venus in 1960, carried out by B. Wallace, attract attention. To date, the results of his research are carefully hushed up. The results of his work directly point to the expression c = c + v.
3. In Fizeau's experiment there is evidence of the “attraction” of the ether to a moving mass of water.
4. Michelson, conducting experiments, said that the ether is absent or exists with its “attraction” to the Earth (the ether has a stationary state relative to the surface of the Earth).
5. For example, stellar aberration can be explained by the propagation of light in the ether, which is in a stationary state. In this case, the telescope must be tilted at an angle of 20.5 arc seconds.
6. Fresnel's theory of refractions is directly related to the existing ether.

All these data correctly indicate the existence of ether, which has an “attraction” to heavy objects. One can even say that the ether has an electrical connection with objects. Jupiter, Venus and Earth have an electrical connection with a certain "atmosphere", which is a polarized ether.

The star system of our universe moves in the motionless ether. Physics and Einstein believe that the speed of light has a constant value in the ether and can be determined by the electrical and magnetic permeability of a given matter. Therefore, it is generally accepted that light in space moves in parallel with the planetary ether, that is, at a speed c+v(!) in relation to the speed of light in the cosmic ether, which is motionless.

This is what the theory of relativity says:

1. In the ether, the speed of light is constant;
2. In the ethereal atmosphere of planets and stars, the speed of light is greater than the speed of light relative to the cosmic ether.

Let's consider the “attraction” of the ether to space objects. In this understanding, one should not take “attraction” in the literal sense, as an increase in the density of the ether structure as it approaches the surface of the object. Such a judgment is contradictory to the extreme strength of ether, which is higher in value than the strength of steel. The concept of “attraction” can be associated with the mechanism of gravity. The mechanism of gravity is an electrostatic phenomenon. The ether is capable of permeating all bodies down to atoms, which consist of electrons and nuclei, where the polarization of the ether occurs - the process of displacement of its bound charges. It is generally accepted that if a body has a large mass, then the polarization is greater, that is, there is a greater certain displacement of the ether charges with the indicator “+” and “-”. From this it is clear that the ether is electrically “attached” to each body, and if the ether is in the space between two bodies, then it contributes to their attraction to each other. In this way, you can draw a picture of gravity and the “attraction” of the ether to cosmic objects - planets and stars.

Let's look at the mathematical formula that describes the process of deformation and polarization of the ether, which is affected by the forces of gravity g:

Where α – electric constant of fine structure.

This mathematical expression is fully consistent with Newton and Coulomb's law. It can be used to describe phenomena such as the deflection of light rays by the Sun, red shift, or the time “lag” of heavy objects in outer space.

Many of you will object and say that bodies moving in space through the ether should feel significant resistance. Of course, resistance exists, but it is negligibly small, since it is not the friction of bodies against the motionless ether, but the friction that is associated with the body of the ethereal atmosphere against the cosmic ether. In this case, we have a blurred boundary between a jointly moving body and the ether and a stationary ether, since the polarization of the ether decreases with distance from the surface of the body in a ratio inversely proportional to the square of the distance. Nobody knows where this border is! At the same time, there is an opinion that ether has low internal friction. Friction exists, and it can slow down the rotation of our planet. The day tends to increase at a slow pace. It is generally accepted that the growth of the day is influenced by the tidal action of the Moon. If this is truly a reality, then the friction of the ether plays a special role in the rotation of many planets in our solar system.
Then we can conclude that ether exists!

Natural circulation of ether

As you know, any natural process has its beginning and end, only the Universe remains unchanged. And then if you look at it in an average context. Stars are born and extinguished in it, atoms of various substances continuously appear and disappear, everything is in a continuous circulation. Everything that was born in the ether returns here after its disappearance. In our time, we have the opportunity to observe the circulation of the ether in its specific forms. Let's try to do this right now. To do this, we will need to connect some of the processes occurring in our Galaxy. Until recently, they were considered incompatible with each other. But judge these processes for yourself.

Recently, a magnetic field with a strength of 10 μG was found in the spiral arms of the Galaxy. This field does not have a specific source, and the lines of force are not closed on themselves. As we know, magnetic field lines must be closed on themselves. It is paradoxical that the field lines of the spiral arms of the Galaxy are not closed.

As is known, gas flows out in all directions from the core of the Galaxy - its central part. At one time, scientists believed that in the center of the Galaxy there was some kind of body that released this gas. It was assumed that the gaseous substance consists of protons and hydrogen atoms. And when we figured it out, it turned out that in the center of the Galaxy there was nothing at all - emptiness. But how can a void emit gas in large quantities? In terms of volume, this gas is one and a half solar masses on a yearly scale.

The shape of the Galaxy is the source of various thoughts. It resembles a whirlpool, forming an all-consuming funnel. But to form a funnel, a substance is needed that will flow into it. There is no other way for it to form!

Also in the central part of the Galaxy there are many stars, and in the spirals the stars are located along the edges, that is, on the walls of the spiral arms.

But how do you tie it all together?
With the help of ether dynamics everything is explained very simply!

What substance can flow into the center of the Galaxy, forming a whirlpool? Of course, this is ether and not another substance. Where does the ether rush to when it gets to the center of the Galaxy along the arms of the spiral? When ether jets collide at enormous speeds, a toroidal helical ether vortex appears. The vortices, in turn, self-compact and divide, until a certain moment of achieving the required density of their body. First of all, helical vortex toroids appear - protons, which create a shell of the surrounding ether, which leads to the formation of a hydrogen atom. The emerging proton-hydrogen gas is capable of expanding and tries to leave the core, which is what we observe.

Let's now understand the spiral arms. In these pipes, the ether flows towards the core. As we know from the theory of whirlpools, the ether cannot flow progressively in this direction. Twisting occurs in its volume, while it moves towards the core, increasing its pitch with each subsequent turn. Having made calculations, scientists found that for the Solar system, the speed of ether is 300 – 600 km/s in the direction perpendicular to the axis of the spiral arm. The displacement of the ether towards the nucleus in one second is 1 micron. But as the spiral arm moves forward, its cross-sectional area decreases, the pitch increases, and the ether simply flies into the center of the galaxy at a speed of tens of thousands of kilometers. In the center, two jets of ether collide and mix, which leads to the formation of a vortex and the release of macrogas. Here's the description for you.

Then the question of open circuits of the magnetic field becomes clear. Since the magnetic field is an ethereal spiral in the flow, we can observe it in the Galaxy.

But where does the macrogas released by the Galaxy go? As has been written in many of our articles, the surface of a gas vortex has a lower temperature than that of the environment. This is explained by the fact that during a gradient flow of a gaseous substance it cools. This can be observed in gas turbines, where the air intake walls are cooled. In nature, after the passage of a tornado, you can see frost on the ground, even in summer. Physically, this is explained by the redistribution of molecular energies, since part of the energy in the gas vortex is spent on the ordered flow of the jet, as well as on the chaotic – thermal flow. In this case, little energy remains, which leads to a decrease in temperature. This explanation is not sufficient, but in nature the temperature of the vortex is less than the ambient temperature. Therefore, there is a temperature gradient, a pressure gradient, and also gravitational forces.

Now an explanation for the birth of new stars is emerging. As soon as a certain amount of macrogas is formed, a new star is formed. But since gas is characterized by expansion, and it tends to break out, the stars formed in it rush to the periphery of the arms of the Galaxy’s spiral. We will consider the topic of the emergence of new planetary systems in other articles, but in this one I would like to consider the fate of these same stars. The stars that did not fall into the Galaxy's arm slowly move away from its center at a speed of 50-100 km/s. Ether vortices gradually lose their stability, as friction against the ether occurs, although the viscosity of the ether is insignificant, but it is not equal to zero. The same thing happens to protons as to smoke rings released by a smoker: the rings lose their initial energy, the rotation speed and pressure gradient decrease, and the diameter of the smoke vortex increases. After this, the smoke whirlwind loses its shape and turns into a smoke cloud. Matter does not disappear anywhere, but the proton, combined with the vortex, dissolves in the ether. This explains the cluster of stars in the central region of the Galaxy, which has a clear boundary.

What happens to stars caught in the spiral arms of the Galaxy? They shift to the peripheral region of the sleeves due to the difference in pressure in the essential mass. These stars have the same speed of motion as the stars in the central region of the Galaxy, but their protons are more stable, since they move in an ethereal flow that goes around them on all sides and increases the speed gradient in the border zone of the vortices. The viscosity of the gas substance, as well as the energy consumption that is transferred to the external environment, depends on the magnitude of the gradient. This also indicates that stars that fall into the arms of the Galaxy will live longer, and their travel distance is longer. This can be seen in photographs of spiral galaxies: the globular cluster in the central region is 2-3 times smaller than the length of the spiral arms. A star travels a huge distance over a fairly long period of time - tens of billions of years. During this period, it loses its stability, falls apart and dissolves into the ether. Galaxies have pressure differences: there is less pressure in the central part, and more pressure at the periphery. This difference is the engine of the ether from the periphery to the core of the Galaxy. Thus, the circulation of ether occurs in the Galaxies.

Shock vibrations on the air

Physicist P.A. Cherenkov in 1934 conducted scientific experiments and observed the glow of extremely fast electrons when exposed to ϒ -rays of radioactive elements passing through water. This allowed the world to know that light is not only produced by electrons moving at high speeds. It became obvious that the speed of the electron V less than the phase speed of light. The phase speed of light when passing through a transparent substance is calculated by the formula C/n, Where n is the refractive index of light in a substance. Most transparent substances have this indicator greater than 1. This indicates that the electron speed can be higher than the phase speed of light C/n and can be “superluminal”.
The glow has the peculiarity that it is distributed within a cone, which has a peninsula angle ν . Determined by the relation

cosν=(С/n)/V=С/nV

The glow is observed only in the direction of electron motion. No light is observed in the opposite direction. In this case, scientists paid special attention to the fact of “superluminal” motion of the electron, which was explained by a violation of the steadfastness of the theory of relativity. In TO it is believed that the speed of light is the limit of nature's capabilities. Complacency for everyone was the fact that the phase velocity of the body was exceeded, and not the velocity in vacuum.

It turns out that physics has once again begun to establish the fact that light is emitted by an electron that is not moving accelerated, but uniformly. But none of the scientists began to think about the reasons for this glow. Why does glow occur only in the direction of electron motion within a cone with an angle.
Using the theory of ether, one can substantiate the reason for such a glow. When bodies pass through the ether at super speeds, shock waves appear in front of the moving body. For example, the speed of sound is perceived as the propagation of weak vibrations. In ethereal theory, it is inappropriate to use the term “speed of sound”; it is better to use “the speed of propagation of weak disturbances,” which is denoted by C a. If, in addition to the ether, space is filled with a transparent liquid, then this speed becomes equal to the phase speed of light C a /n.

In the figure below we can see the movement of the ball in the air at supersonic speed. We can see the emerging shock wave forming. The angle of inclination of the shock wave in the direction of movement decreases from 90°. In this case, the value β remains constant.

When a body passes over a long distance, the shock wave will dry out, transforming into a line of disturbance, since the angle of inclination of the shock wave approaches the angle of disturbance μ , which is determined by the expression

Sin μ=1/M

If we consider this ratio in relation to the ether, we get

Sinμ=1/M=(C a /n)/V

Where C a /n is the phase velocity of propagation of weak disturbances, V is the speed of the electron.

According to Huygens' theory: light rays are a collection of straight lines that are normal in the wave front. The shock wave during the “superluminal” motion of the electron can be recognized as a wave front, which is caused by the electron in the quiet ether. Cone peninsula angle ν , in which the glow propagates, is the angle between the trajectory of the electron and the direction of the family of straight lines normal in the upper and lower parts of the shock wave.

Given the small size of the electron and the high speed of its movement, it is impossible to consider the structure of the shock wave in close proximity to the surface of the flying electron. Therefore, this experiment demonstrated only the feature of streamlining after the passage of an electron, where the angle of the shock wave β close in value to the perturbation angle μ . Mathematically this is explained as follows:

β=90°-ν

This ratio gives the real value for the input quantities that characterize the ethereal gas. When an electron moves in benzene ν =38.8° ( n=1.501). These data make it possible to derive the main characteristic of the ether - the speed of propagation of weak excitations in the ether. When value μ≈β perturbation angle μ =51.5°, Mach number M=1.278, electron speed V=C/(n x cosν)=2.554x10 10 cm/s. The speed of propagation of weak disturbances in a quiet ether at M=1,278 – S a=3.0x10 10 cm/s.

Conclusion: The speed of propagation of weak disturbances at the speed of light in a quiet ether will have the form:

S a=WITH=3x10 8 m/s=3x10 10 cm/s

The Cherenkov experiment was carried out in a synchrotron, and the glow was observed from the approaching electron, but in the opposite direction the glow was not visible. Therefore, we can say that the glow occurred due to the presence of shock waves, which were generated by a moving electron, and not by the propagation of weak vibrations in the ethereal gas. If this were not so, then the glow could be seen as a trace from a flying electron. It can also be said that the human eye perceives light due to the pressure difference that appears through the light shock wave towards the normal and its base. During a compression shock, a plug of compressed gas appears, which follows the shock at a speed V 2 lesser than the speed of the jump and the speed of light in the ether. V 2 = (2C)/(k+1).

Ether, carried along by a shock wave, has the ability to exert pressure on obstacles and even absorb light. The human eye has a threshold of sensitivity to pressure changes and forceful interaction with a moving compressed plug that presses on the retina. The existence of the ether is confirmed by Cherenkov’s experiment, which once again proves the possibility of the appearance and propagation of shock waves in the ether.

Quotes about the air

“The One Ether permeates the entire Universe”
- Ancient Chinese Taoism, the teaching of Tao or "the way of things", a Chinese traditional teaching incorporating elements of religion and philosophy.

"Ether is a celestial substance, without which it would be impossible to distinguish between rest and motion"
- Aristotle(384 - 322 BC), ancient Greek philosopher. Disciple of Plato.

“I suppose the existence of a subtle substance which includes and permeates all other bodies, which is the solvent in which they all float, which supports and continues all these bodies in their motion and which is the medium transmitting all homogeneous and harmonious movements from body to body »
- Robert Hooke(1635 - 1703), English naturalist, encyclopedist.

“There is nothing in the world except Ether and its vortices”
- Rene Descartes, French philosopher, mathematician, mechanic, physicist and physiologist, 1650

“To get close to this most important, and then the fastest moving element “x”, which, in my understanding, can be considered Ether. I would like to tentatively call it Newtorium."
- D.I. Mendeleev, the great chemist who discovered the periodic table of elements.

“Ether is a material substance, incomparably more subtle than visible bodies, supposed to exist in those parts of space that seem empty”
- J.C. Maxwell. article "Ether" for Encyclopedia Britannica, 1877

“There are more than 80 arguments confirming the theory of the existence of Ether. To deny the existence of the Ether ultimately means to admit that empty space has no physical properties."
- Albert Einstein 1920

“We can say that, according to the general theory of relativity, space has physical properties; in this sense, therefore, the Ether exists. According to the general theory of relativity, space is unthinkable without Ether!”
- Albert Einstein 1924

“Everything came from the Ether, everything will go to the Ether”
- Nikola Tesla, a great experimental scientist who was far ahead of his time.

“Any particle, even an isolated one, must be presented in continuous “energetic contact” with a hidden medium”
- Louis Victor Pierre Raymond, French theoretical physicist, one of the founders of quantum mechanics, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1929.

“The entire known Universe is surrounded by a transparent and terribly rarefied material medium called the Ether. In all its parts, through condensation, an ordinary substance is formed, consisting of atoms or their parts known to us.” (From the article "Ethereal Island")
- K.E. Tsiolkovsky, philosopher, inventor, teacher of mathematics and physics.

“Ideas about the existence of the Ether - the world environment that fills all terrestrial and outer space, which is the building material for all types of matter, the movements of which manifest themselves in the form of force fields - have accompanied the entire history of natural science known to us since the most ancient times.”

Several years ago I came across an interesting book by a little-known American researcher. He claims that at the age of 13 he was visiting family friends and their astrophysicist neighbor. The professor worked for the US government, deciphering the technology of a Nazi flying saucer that was brought to New Mexico after 1945.

“Since the true theory of electricity is based on the concept of the “ether,” this branch of physics is classified “in the interests of national security,” writes the book’s author, William Lyne, “and purposefully distorted by false propaganda...”.

So, let’s remember what ether is. In ancient times, philosophers assumed that there was a certain “water” everywhere and everywhere, from which everything consists, and in which we live and which we cannot feel. Rene Descartes (1596-1650) was the first to talk about ether as a scientific phenomenon. Later, scientists who studied light became convinced that it was a kind of wave. But the wave must propagate somewhere; it needs some kind of medium in which microparticles of light - photons - can “float”. In the 19th century, the scientific world, with each new experience in which this unknown environment was manifested, became more and more firmly convinced that that invisible, intangible, intangible, unimaginable, all-pervading something, superfine matter, really exists. Why are the powers that be trying their best to hide this phenomenon from humanity? To answer this question, you need to understand what ether is and what knowledge about it can give to the world.

Mendeleev's ether theory

Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev approached the topic of ether from the chemistry side. In his work "" the great Russian chemist describes the course of his thoughts on creating the chemical elements of ether particles.

The scientist writes in his work that “ether is the lightest - in this regard, the limiting - gas with a high degree of permeability”, “its particles have a relatively low weight and have a higher speed of translational motion than for any other gases” . Therefore, the scientist isolated ether in a separate - zero - column in his table of chemical elements (later, after the death of Dmitry Ivanovich, this table was cut off at this very place).

So, Dmitry Ivanovich developed, within the framework of his hypothesis, two chemical elements, by which he meant such a phenomenon as an ethereal substance. He placed the first option - “coronium” (or “Y”) in the first row of the zero group. The second option - “newtonium” (or “X”) - was derived completely separately by the chemist and placed in the zero row and zero group.

“THE PROBLEM OF GRAVITY AND THE PROBLEMS OF ALL ENERGY CANNOT BE PRESENTED REALLY SOLVED WITHOUT A REAL UNDERSTANDING OF THE ETHER, as a world medium that transmits energy over distances,” concludes the great Russian scientist.

And at this point we move on to the next great scientist of Slavic origin, who devoted many years of his life to experiments with the ether - Nikola Tesla.

Nikola Tesla's Aether Theory

The topic of broadcasting fascinated the young Serbian tester even in his youth. Driven by the dream of providing humanity with free and endless energy, ending global and local wars for resources, and giving people the keys to earthly paradise, Tesla worked on technology for wireless transmission of electricity over long distances. And this is in addition to a huge number of developments in other areas. When you start to study the range of his works, you simply cannot believe that all these developments were created by one person, and even in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. Inventions simply flowed in a continuous stream from his mysterious consciousness (and subconscious). How these developments came to his mind is a separate story.

Let's get back to the broadcast. Mark Twain called it “the lord of lightning,” namely, the one who tamed electricity and performed tricks with this element that were unimaginable even for our contemporaries. These amazing things were possible thanks to knowledge of the theory of the ether. It was ether that became the password under which the great scientist logged into the console of a program called “world electricity” and learned to obtain energy virtually from thin air. His colleagues, neither at that time nor now, could and cannot repeat many of Tesla’s experiments. And all because they did not use and do not use a special password. The fight against this access code began at the beginning of the 20th century and took place at various levels. Tesla became one of the first scientists to experience this powerful scientific, financial, and informational opposition for himself.

Let's name at least a few areas of development of the great “electrician” of all times. Ideas that could and would change beyond recognition, turn the way of life of mankind upside down:

wireless transmission of huge amounts of energy over long distances;

seismic weapons that will make any war impossible;

electrical treatment;

super-fast flying machines;

vertical take-off and landing aircraft;

wireless torpedoes;

lightning control;

electric cars;

electric propulsion system (turbine) with “invisible rope” technology;

electric oscillator with a capacity of 10 million horsepower;

training animals with electricity.

Tesla assumed that the ether is a super-light gas, consisting of ultra-small particles that move at breakneck speed in the ubiquitous corpuscular radiation - “the main rays of the sun.” These rays penetrate into the ether particles and interact with electronic forces and mass. Tesla led developments in influencing the ether, experimenting with the electromagnetic field and electricity.

In 1901, Tesla began to be financed by bankers James S. Warden and John Pierpont Morgan (from the Morgan clan, which, along with other American families, formed the backbone of the world government or the “Committee of Three Hundred” - you can read more about this in the book “The Committee of 300” by John Coleman) . The project was called “Wardenclyffe”. With the money allocated by the rich, the “lightning lord” was supposed to develop technology for wireless transmission of telegraph messages across the Atlantic Ocean (this would give Morgan an advantage in quickly receiving financial information from the Old World). Tesla was designing a tall structure that would function as a wireless telecommunications tower. In general, the tycoons had their own idea of ​​what Tesla would do with their money.

But the scientist did not stop at the project, which was beneficial to the bankers, and used all available opportunities to work on wireless transmission of electricity over long distances in order to make electricity available to every inhabitant of the Earth. With the help of his miracle tower, Tesla could electrify spaces for several tens of kilometers around in such a way that the night air in several American cities at once glowed as if it were day, and citizens could even read newspapers on the street. Witnesses also said that everything around, including people, was covered with luminous halos. When Morgan demanded the results of his work from Nikola Tesla and realized that his money had gone to the wrong place, funding for all the research of the Serbian scientist was frozen. And the banker’s colleagues refused to conduct any common projects with Tesla.

Thus, the world government saw through the plans of the “inspired prophet of electricity” (in Rutherford’s words) and did everything to prevent Nikola Tesla from continuing his tests in the field of ethereal technologies.

In 1914, the scientist was unable to interest the American government in the submarine and electrical technology. In an unpublished scientific paper, Tesla writes:

“We must immediately support the development of FLYING CARS AND WIRELESS INSTANTANEOUS ENERGY TRANSMISSION with all the power and resources of the nation.”

There is a noticeable technical connection between these two developments - flying cars (not airplanes) and wireless energy transfer. The Morgans and Rockefellers declared piles of patents outside the scope of lending, and the great scientist did not receive the income he deserved from his unique inventions. It is important to note that at that time, in fact, no one could even take out a bank loan to give a scientist money to implement his projects. Later, the researcher was unable to interest investors in his technologies for wireless energy transfer.

Aircrafts

Tesla worked for several years on another “ethereal” invention, which few people know about - the development of a flying car (not an airplane, not an airplane!), which could be driven by the impact of high-voltage electric charges on the surrounding ethereal space . The speed of such vehicles can reach 36,000 miles per hour! Tesla even conceived of interplanetary flights using such a “flying machine”; he considered them the most convenient and cost-effective thanks to the use of a long electric “cable” stretched from the Earth; that is, this technology implied the rejection of any other types of fuel.

American investors, despite the great promise of such projects, did not agree to allocate a single cent to them. But in Nazi Germany they became interested. In particular, Wernher von Braun, a famous first German and then (since 1955) American designer of rocket and space technology (and then the “founder” of the American space program), acquired and began to develop in the “P2” project in Los Alamos ( New Mexico) Tesla's electrical discovery that "all bodies are filled with 'electrical content' and resonate under electromagnetic influence with rapidly changing electrostatic forces and the ether to determine their gravitational interactions and motion through space" (William Lyne, Top Secret Archives Tesla”, publishing house “Eksmo”, 2009). In 1937, von Braun transferred the project to the Third Reich, and development in this area continued in Pitsunda, in the Baltics and in underground factories in Germany. Anyone who has heard or read about Nazi flying saucers has probably already guessed that these innovations were based on the “ethereal” technologies of Nikola Tesla.

Modern American researcher William Line, in his books, for example, “Space Aliens from the Pentagon,” describes these technologies in some detail. He is convinced: UFOs are the work of American intelligence services or, according to conspiracy theorists, the work of the world government. It is the ability to influence the ether in a certain way that can set in motion flying cars, the creation of which Nikola Tesla began to work on. It is thanks to the knowledge and understanding of such natural phenomena as the ether and the main cosmic rays that these amazing machines can take off and land vertically, instantly accelerate and change speed sharply, and also hover in the air. At the same time, the pilot’s body does not experience the stress that is possible in other types of vehicles. It was these unique characteristics that the great Tesla wrote about a long time ago. You can read more about the invention of Tesla's flying cars in the article “”.

As for the further fate of the Nazi “flying saucers,” during and after the war the Americans provided their defense industry and later their space program with highly qualified personnel from the Third Reich (Operation Paperclip). It is not surprising that then in the United States, cases when people saw those same flying cars became more frequent, and in American society there was a boom in ufological tales.

William Line writes in one of his books that in 1953 he saw with his own eyes a “flying saucer” in the sky quite closely. The fact that the bottom of this super-fast machine was surrounded by abundant electrical discharges (which he called “Tesla discharges”) testified to the use of “ethereal” technology by such a “plate”. Line is sure: the car was indicated by gyroscopic stabilizers, which the Serbian genius had previously written about. After Tesla's death, all his papers, drawings with inventions and developments disappeared without a trace from the hotel room where the scientist lived. I think it’s already clear who “confiscated” them.

Guarding the new feudal order

Summarizing this whole story with the use of ether by Nikola Tesla and other interested parties, I would like to note the following. When the great Serbian genius created and sold patents for developments using the energy of this specific medium, he could hardly realize that his attempts to cooperate with the Morgans and other Western bankers automatically put an end to his “brainchildren”. After all, Tesla actually came into direct contact with those who always and everywhere sought to fight technologies that would make the lives of ordinary people better and stop wars and disasters.

Tesla's inventions are capable of turning a person into an omnipotent god who can subjugate any element to himself. Imagine a future in which there is no hunger, shortages, economic problems, defaults, wars, conflicts... This is a completely different society, a completely different civilization! At the same time, this is a terrible dream of the world elite, and they are ready to use all means to ensure that it never comes true.

The world government, or the conglomerate that is usually called it, has hidden and is hiding many different inventions from humanity. An irrepressible scientist is usually “put a spoke in his wheels” everywhere, and if he does not calm down, he is “removed” - “heart” and all that... But the world elite did not do this with Tesla, at least, they did not do it right away. She waited too long and didn't touch him. This suggests that the world establishment deliberately did not prevent him from generating new ideas - the “Committee of 300” themselves may find them useful. But, at the same time, the rulers of the world did not allow Tesla to implement his inventions in the direction he needed.

As for the ether theory, the shadow government began a real special operation to save its feudal world order. And this special operation was called “The Theory of Relativity”. They chose a more or less impressive one among their Jews, and his wife is a female physics genius. We learn how to kill several birds with one stone from the history of the propaganda of this controversial theory.

Continuing this topic, read about methods for eliminating the theory of ether in the article.

Anastasia Kostash

A friend of mine gave me this manuscript. He was in the USA and bought himself an old fireman's helmet at a street sale in New York. Inside this helmet, apparently as a lining, lay an old notebook. The notebook had thin, burnt covers and smelled of mold. Its yellowed pages were covered with ink that had faded with time. In some places the ink had faded so much that the letters were barely visible on the yellowed paper. In some places, large sections of the text were completely damaged by water and appeared as light ink stains. In addition, the edges of all the sheets were burnt and some words disappeared forever.

From the translation, I immediately realized that this manuscript belongs to the famous inventor Nikola Tesla, who lived and worked in the USA. A lot of work was spent on processing the translated text; anyone who worked as a computer translator will understand me well. There were many problems due to lost words and sentences. There are many small, but perhaps very important details, I still did not understand this manuscript.

I hope that this manuscript will reveal to you some of the mysteries of history and the universe.

You are mistaken, Mr. Einstein, the ether exists!

Nowadays there is a lot of talk about Einstein's theory. This young man proves that there is no ether, and many agree with him. But, in my opinion, this is a mistake. Opponents of the ether, as evidence, refer to the Michelson-Morley experiments, which tried to detect the movement of the Earth relative to the stationary ether. Their experiments ended in failure, but this does not mean that there is no ether. In my works I have always relied on the existence of a mechanical ether and therefore achieved certain successes.

Despite the weak interaction, we still feel the presence of ether. An example of such interaction appears in gravity, as well as during sudden acceleration or braking. I think that the stars, planets and our entire world arose from the ether when, for some reason, part of it became less dense. This can be compared to the formation of air bubbles in water, although this comparison is very rough. Compressing our world from all sides, the ether tries to return to its original state, and the internal electric charge in the substance of the material world prevents this. Over time, having lost its internal electrical charge, our world will be compressed by the ether and itself will turn into ether. Once it goes off the air, it goes back on the air.

Every material body, be it the Sun or the smallest particle, is an area of ​​low pressure in the ether. Therefore, the ether cannot remain in a motionless state around material bodies. Based on this, it can be explained why the Michelson-Morley experiment ended unsuccessfully.

World ether concept. Part 1: Why did the Michelson-Morley experiment to detect the “ether wind” show zero results?

To understand this, let’s transfer the experiment to an aquatic environment. Imagine that your boat is spinning in a huge whirlpool. Try to detect the movement of the water relative to the boat. You will not detect any movement, since the speed of the boat will be equal to the speed of the water. If you replace the boat in your imagination with the Earth, and the whirlpool with an ethereal tornado that revolves around the Sun, you will understand why the Michelson-Morley experiment ended unsuccessfully.

In my research, I always adhere to the principle that all phenomena in nature, no matter in what physical environment they occur, always manifest themselves in the same way. There are waves in water, in air... and radio waves and light are waves in the ether. Einstein's statement that there is no ether is erroneous. It is difficult to imagine that there are radio waves, but there is no ether - the physical medium that carries these waves. Einstein tries to explain the movement of light in the absence of ether with Planck's quantum hypothesis. I wonder how Einstein, without the existence of ether, can explain ball lightning? Einstein says there is no ether, but he himself actually proves its existence.

Take, for example, the speed of light. Einstein states that the speed of light does not depend on the speed of the light source. And it is right. But this rule can only exist when the light source is in a certain physical medium (ether), which by its properties limits the speed of light. The substance of the ether limits the speed of light in the same way as the substance of air limits the speed of sound. If there were no ether, then the speed of light would strongly depend on the speed of the light source.

Having understood what ether is, I began to draw analogies between phenomena in water, in air and in ether. And then an incident occurred that greatly helped me in my research. One day I watched a sailor smoking a pipe. He blew smoke out of his mouth in small rings. The tobacco smoke rings traveled quite a distance before collapsing. Then I conducted a study of this phenomenon in water. Taking a metal can, I cut a small hole on one side and stretched thin skin on the other side. After pouring some ink into the jar, I lowered it into a pool of water. When I sharply hit the skin with my fingers, ink rings flew out of the jar, which crossed the entire pool and, colliding with its wall, were destroyed, causing significant fluctuations in the water at the wall of the pool. The water in the pool remained completely calm.

Yes, this is a transfer of energy... - I exclaimed.

It was like an epiphany - I suddenly understood what ball lightning is and how to transmit energy wirelessly over long distances .

Based on this research, I created a generator that generated ethereal vortex rings, which I called ethereal vortex objects. This was a victory. I was euphoric. It seemed to me that I could do anything. I promised a lot of things without fully investigating this phenomenon, and I paid dearly for it. They stopped giving me money for my research, and the worst thing is that they stopped believing me. Euphoria gave way to deep depression. And then I decided on my crazy experiment.

The mystery of my invention will die with me

After my failures, I became more restrained in my promises... Working with ethereal vortex objects, I realized that they do not behave quite the way I thought before. It turned out that when vortex objects passed near metal objects, they lost their energy and collapsed, sometimes with an explosion. The deep layers of the Earth absorbed their energy as strongly as the metal. Therefore, I could only transmit energy over short distances.

Then I turned my attention to the Moon. If you send ethereal vortex objects to the Moon, then they, reflected from its electrostatic field, will return back to Earth at a considerable distance from the transmitter. Since the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, energy can be transmitted over very long distances, even to the other side of the Earth.

I conducted several experiments, transferring energy towards the Moon. These experiments revealed that the Earth is surrounded by an electric field. This field destroyed weak vortex objects. Ethereal vortex objects, possessing great energy, broke through the Earth's electric field and went into interplanetary space. And then the thought occurred to me that if I could create a resonant system between the Earth and the Moon, then the transmitter power could be very small, but the energy from this system could be extracted very large.

Having made calculations about what energy can be extracted, I was surprised. From the calculation it followed that the energy extracted from this system was sufficient to completely destroy a large city. That was the first time I realized that my system could be dangerous to humanity. But still, I really wanted to conduct my experiment. In secret from others, I began the careful preparation of my crazy experiment.

First of all, I had to choose a place for the experiment. The Arctic was best suited for this. There were no people there and I wouldn't hurt anyone. But the calculation showed that with the current position of the Moon, an ethereal vortex object could hit Siberia, and people could live there. I went to the library and began to study information about Siberia. There was little information, but still I realized that there were almost no people in Siberia.

I had to keep my experiment a deep secret, otherwise the consequences for me and for all humanity could be very unpleasant. I am always tormented by one question: will my discoveries be for the benefit of people? After all, it has long been known that people used all inventions to exterminate their own kind. It helped a lot to keep my secret that a lot of the equipment in my laboratory had been dismantled by this time. However, I was able to save what I needed for the experiment. From this equipment, I single-handedly assembled a new transmitter and connected it to the emitter. An experiment with that much energy could be very dangerous. If I make a mistake in my calculations, then the energy of the ethereal vortex object will strike in the opposite direction. Therefore, I was not in the laboratory, but two miles away from it. The operation of my installation was controlled by a clock mechanism.

The principle of the experiment was very simple. In order to better understand its principle, you must first understand what an ethereal vortex object and ball lightning are. Basically, it's the same thing. The only difference is that ball lightning is an ethereal vortex object that is visible. The visibility of ball lightning is ensured by a large electrostatic charge. This can be compared to touching up the water vortex rings in my pool experiment with ink. Passing through an electrostatic field, an ethereal vortex object captures charged particles in it, which cause the glow of ball lightning.

To create a resonant Earth-Moon system, it was necessary to create a large concentration of charged particles between the Earth and the Moon. To do this, I used the property of ethereal vortex objects to capture and transfer charged particles. The generator emitted ethereal vortex objects towards the Moon. They, passing through the electric field of the Earth, captured charged particles in it. Since the electrostatic field of the Moon has the same polarity as the electric field of the Earth, the ethereal vortex objects were reflected from it and again went to the Earth, but at a different angle. Returning to the Earth, the ethereal vortex objects were again reflected by the Earth's electric field back to the Moon and so on. Thus, the resonant system Earth - Moon - Earth's electric field was pumped with charged particles. When the required concentration of charged particles was reached in the resonant system, it self-excited at its resonant frequency. The energy, amplified a million times by the resonant properties of the system, in the Earth's electric field turned into an ethereal vortex object of colossal power. But these were just my assumptions, and I didn’t really know what would happen.

I remember the day of the experiment very well. The estimated time was approaching. The minutes passed very slowly and seemed like years. I thought I would go crazy with this anticipation. Finally the estimated time arrived and... nothing happened! Another five minutes passed, but nothing unusual happened. Various thoughts came into my head: maybe the clock mechanism didn’t work, or the system didn’t work, or maybe nothing should happen.

I was on the verge of madness. And suddenly... It seemed to me that the light dimmed for a moment, and a strange sensation appeared throughout my body - as if thousands of needles had been stuck into me. Soon it was all over, but an unpleasant metallic taste remained in my mouth. All my muscles relaxed, and my head was noisy. I felt completely defeated. When I returned to my laboratory, I found it almost intact, only there was a strong smell of burning in the air... I was again overcome by agonizing anticipation, because I did not know the results of my experiment. And only later, after reading in the newspapers about unusual phenomena, I realized what a terrible weapon I had created. I, of course, expected there to be a strong explosion. But it wasn’t even an explosion - it was a disaster!

After this experiment, I firmly decided that the secret of my invention would die with me. Of course, I understood that someone else could easily repeat this crazy experiment. But for this it was necessary to recognize the existence of the ether, and our scientific world moved further and further away from the truth. I am even grateful to Einstein and others for the fact that with their erroneous theories they led humanity away from this dangerous path that I followed. And maybe this is their main merit. Maybe in a hundred years, when people's reason takes precedence over animal instincts, my invention will benefit people.

flying car

While working on my generator, I noticed something strange. When it was turned on, a breeze was clearly felt blowing towards the generator. At first I thought it was due to electrostatics. Then I decided to check it out. I rolled several newspapers together, lit them and immediately put them out. Thick smoke billowed from the newspapers. I walked around the generator with these smoking newspapers. From any point in the laboratory, smoke went to the generator and, rising above it, went up, as if into an exhaust pipe. When the generator was turned off, this phenomenon was not observed.

Having thought about this phenomenon, I came to the conclusion that my generator, acting on the ether, reduces the force of gravity! To make sure of this, I built a large scale. One side of the scale was located above the generator. To eliminate the electromagnetic influence of the generator, the scales were made of well-dried wood. Having carefully balanced the scales, I turned on the generator with great excitement. The side of the scale that was located above the generator quickly went up. I automatically turned off the generator. The scales went down and began to oscillate until they came to balance.

It was like a magic trick. I loaded the scales with ballast and, by changing the power and operating mode of the generator, achieved their balance. After these experiments, I decided to build a flying machine that could fly not only in the air, but also in space.

The operating principle of this machine is as follows: a generator installed on the flying machine removes ether in the direction of its flight. Since the ether continues to press on all other sides with the same force, the flying machine will begin to move. While in such a car, you will not feel acceleration, since the ether will not interfere with your movement.

Unfortunately, I had to give up creating a flying machine. This happened for two reasons. Firstly, I don’t have the money to carry out this work secretly. But most importantly, a big war has begun in Europe, and I don’t want my inventions to kill! When will these crazy people stop?

Afterword

After reading this manuscript, I began to look at the world around us differently. Now, with new data, I am increasingly convinced that Tesla was right in many ways! I am convinced of the correctness of Tesla's ideas by certain phenomena that modern science cannot explain.

For example, on what principle do unidentified flying objects (UFOs) fly? Probably no one doubts their existence anymore. Pay attention to their flight. UFOs can instantly accelerate, change altitude and flight direction. Any living creature, being in a UFO, according to the laws of mechanics, would be crushed by overloads. However, this does not happen.

Or another example: When a UFO flies at low altitude, car engines stop and the headlights go out. Tesla's ether theory explains these phenomena well. Unfortunately, the place in the manuscript where the generator of ethereal vortex objects is described was heavily damaged by water. However, from these fragmentary data I still understood how this generator works, but for a complete picture some details are missing and therefore experiments are needed. The benefits from these experiments will be enormous. Having built the Tesla flying machine, we will be able to fly freely in the universe, and tomorrow, and not in the distant future, we will master the planets of the solar system and reach the nearest stars!

Afterword 2

I analyzed those places in the manuscript that remained incomprehensible to me. For this analysis, I used other publications and statements of Nikola Tesla, as well as modern ideas of physicists. I am not a physicist and therefore it is difficult for me to understand all the intricacies of this science. I will simply express my own interpretation of Nikola Tesla’s phrases.

In an unknown manuscript of Nikola Tesla there is the following phrase: “Light moves in a straight line, but the ether moves in a circle, so jumps occur.” Apparently, with this phrase Tesla is trying to explain why light moves in jumps. In modern physics this phenomenon is called a quantum leap. There is an explanation for this phenomenon later in the manuscript, but it is a little vague. Therefore, from individual surviving words and sentences, I will give my reconstruction of the explanation for this phenomenon. In order to better understand why light moves in leaps and bounds, imagine a boat spinning in a huge whirlpool. Let's install a wave generator on this boat. Since the speed of movement of the external and internal regions of the whirlpool is different, the waves from the generator, crossing these regions, will move in jumps. The same thing happens with light when it crosses the ethereal tornado.

The manuscript contains a very interesting description of the principle of obtaining energy from the ether. But it was also heavily damaged by water, so I will give my reconstruction of the text. This reconstruction is based on individual words and phrases from an unknown manuscript, as well as other publications of Nikola Tesla. Therefore, I cannot guarantee an exact match between the reconstruction of the manuscript text and the original. Obtaining energy from the ether is based on the fact that there is a huge pressure difference between the ether and the substance of the material world. The ether, trying to return to its original state, compresses the material world from all sides, and electrical forces, the substances of the material world, prevent this compression.

This can be compared to air bubbles in water. To understand how to get energy from the ether, let's imagine a huge bubble of air floating in water. This air bubble is very stable because it is compressed from all sides by water. How to extract energy from this air bubble? To do this, its stability must be disrupted.

This can be done by a waterspout, or if a water vortex ring hits the wall of this air bubble. If, with the help of an ethereal vortex object, we do the same in the ether, we will receive a huge release of energy. To prove this assumption, I will give an example: When ball lightning comes into contact with any object, a huge release of energy occurs, and sometimes an explosion. In my opinion, Tesla used this principle of obtaining energy from the ether in his experiment with an electric car at the Buffalo factories in 1931.

Manuscript found in an old fireman's helmet at a street sale in New York (USA). It is assumed that the author of the manuscript is Nikola Tesla.

A hundred years ago, the concept of ether was removed from physics as not corresponding to reality. However, physicists had to introduce a new concept - physical vacuum. Along with the introduction of exchangeable virtual particles of vacuum during electromagnetic and nuclear interactions, this is a step towards a “retreat” and recognition of the existence of the ether on a new physical basis. In this work, with the help of vacuum and nuclear photoeffects, the foundations of the theory of the ether are created. The main parameters of its structure are determined. The photon and nuclear ether are identified, which are interconnected by a commonality of structural formations based on virtual pairs of electron and positron. The structure of the ether varieties led to the unification of gravity and electromagnetism in the photon ether, to the unification of nuclear forces, electromagnetism and gravity in the meson ether.

Introduction

It probably doesn't get any worse than being misunderstood. Once he heard addressed to himself: “subverter... in one’s declining years, this usually happens...”. In fact, the author never had any intention of subverting anything. It all started around the early fall of 1998, when a number of external circumstances forced the author to think - what is gravity, inertia? One must assume that this question is always “in the air”, despite the facts already known in physics. Great Newton's laws, mathematical description of A. Einstein's laws of gravity and inertia based on matrix calculus. Many physicists are quite satisfied with the results of the famous space-time, which is capable of curvature in emptiness. Why invent something else when All is it clear yet? But we must not forget that Einstein only improved the description of Newton's laws, but did not find reason gravity and inertia. Physical reason! The author, without any global thought, asked himself the question - what are gravity and inertia? It was an unbearable shame to leave without finding out the answer to this question for myself. The most natural thing was to “lose” the amazing similarity of Newton’s and Coulomb’s laws. Approaching purely formally, it was easy to obtain a connection between mass and electric charge. Fully aware that this still means absolutely nothing, the author said to himself and those around him: “If this formula proves itself in assessing the magnetic fields of planets, then costs continuation." Indeed, the masses of the planets can be converted into their electric charges. The charges of the planets rotate and should generate magnetic fields directed along the axis of rotation. The first result with the Earth's magnetic field was inspiring. With an average value of the magnetic field strength at its poles of 50 a / m calculation gave almost 38 a / m. Given the complete absurdity of the formula, such a coincidence is difficult to expect. An impetus was given for further actions. The next question is how to solve the problem of Coulomb attraction of all bodies among themselves? After all, according to Coulomb, only bodies with opposite charges attract! Naturally, the next very important step is that the space itself between the bodies should be weakly charged. Then it should, at a minimum, induce charges on the bodies one sign and pull all bodies towards each other with their “extra” charge of the opposite sign according to Coulomb’s law. The chain stretched from the combined Newton-Coulomb law to a physical medium that has an electric charge, fills Einstein’s “empty” space and is capable of polarization in the presence of physical bodies, charged objects of the macro- and microworlds. It is well known that a certain medium in physics is called physical vacuum. This is a hypocritical recognition of the existence of ether under a new guise. But it is better to refrain from words that, at best, express annoyance at the 100-year-old failure of physics. This is not the true motive for this work.

In 1999, two versions of the brochure “Model for unifying interactions in Nature” were written and published in small editions, and with priority dated December 17, 1998, Russian Patent #2145103 was received for the above formula as “A method for determining the uncompensated electric charge of material bodies.” These facts indicate that nothing human is alien to the author. But as subsequent events showed, the author’s fears were practically in vain. The very concept of “ether” has become a reliable defender of copyright - this concept is so absolutely unacceptable for modern physics!

At the stage of the mentioned brochures, the author stated: “Enough! I don’t know anything else and further similar work is impossible due to limited knowledge in physics...”. However, something almost mystical happened: the equation of photon energies and deformations of associated charges of the physical vacuum was written on its own based on Coulomb’s law. Quite unexpectedly, from an equation that was meaningless from the point of view of modern physics, nature's magic number arose - 137.036. It was a shock! It turns out that the deformation of the ether under the influence of a photon has a chance of life.

And the result is a picture of the world that is incredible from the point of view of modern physics.

If there is an ether, then:

There is no need for the concept of the photon itself, since the initial movement of electrons in the source (for example, the transition of an electron from an excited orbit in an atom to one of the stable ones) is accompanied, according to Coulomb’s law, by the movement of the associated charge of the ether, which follows the source electron in its movement. The latter is transmitted through a chain of ether dipoles at the speed of light to the observer (receiver). Thus, it is not an imaginary photon that reaches the observer, but a disturbance of the ether.

An electromagnetic wave is no longer the usual propagation of electromagnetism in empty space, but a disturbance of the ethereal medium of dipoles of “virtual” electrons and positrons. This disturbance, according to Maxwell's law, is accompanied by displacement currents, which add up in the transverse direction with respect to the direction of its propagation; the magnetic fields of these currents limit the speed of propagation by the speed of light. It turns out to be constant on the air and independent of the speeds of the source and receiver.

The longitudinal propagation of ether polarization is associated with the propagation of gravity. Since in this case the displacement currents are subtracted and for the central nature of the gravitational forces they are completely compensated for each other, their magnetic field, equal to zero, does not interfere with the speed of propagation, and the speed of gravity is practically unlimited. The Universe receives the possibility of a gravitational description as a single developing system, which is impossible in Einstein’s concept, which limits the speed of any interaction to the speed of light.

With the same consistency, the ether leads to the denial of the real existence of exchange particles in electromagnetic, nuclear and intra-nucleon interactions. All of these interactions are carried out by the cosmic, nuclear and nucleonic ether through the deformations of the corresponding formations of their environments. This is as paradoxical a conclusion as the conclusion about the absence of a photon. After all, physics of recent decades has been developing the concept of exchange particles with great success, finding experimental confirmation in the detection of heavy particles participating in weak and strong nuclear and simple nucleon interactions.

The concept of the ether leads to another contradiction with physical ideas about the quark structure of nucleons. Despite the fact that quarks cannot be detected in a free state, the successes of quantum chromodynamics in the practical explanation of the structure of nucleons are undeniable. On the other hand, modern physics, based on the interpretation of experimental data, categorically denies the possibility of the structure of nucleons from such components as electrons and positrons. The theory of the ether says the opposite - all nucleons can be represented as consisting of mesons, which in turn have a clear structure of their dipoles from electron + positron pairs. There is an essential circumstance to this - the electron and positron do not consist of quarks, but are truly elementary particles. The theory of quarks remains a very beautiful fairy tale of modern physics. What terms! Color, charm, aromas... Where is Occam's principle? Nature in its fundamentals is much simpler and more prosaic.

And finally, the ether theory also successfully interprets such experimental facts as the deflection of light in the gravitational field of heavy space objects, the red shift of light from a source on a heavy space object, the possibility of the existence of “black holes,” etc. But as a free application, it also reveals the secret of gravity, antigravity in the Universe, the nature of inertia - that is, what Einstein’s theory of general relativity could not cope with.

At the stage of completion of the “photonic” ether, the author’s determination not to continue developing the theme of ether was again mystically shaken. Ideas for the structure of the nuclear ether, consisting of meson dipoles, arose spontaneously. And then it was already difficult to get rid of questions about the structure of nucleons. Everything can be explained using the most elementary particles: electrons and positrons. Even the dependence of the internal nucleon forces on distance automatically arose from the concept of the nuclear ether.

Here are briefly the results of that curiosity aimed at finding out - what is gravity? If physics had seriously taken up the task of finding out the answer to this question at one time, then this publication would have turned out to be unnecessary. As for the consistency of modern physics or the consistency of the theory of the ether, then, as the outstanding physicist R. Feynman once pointed out, several parallel theories have the right to exist, explaining the same phenomenon, which are internally perfect, but only one of them corresponds to the structure of the world . The author does not insist on accepting the concept outlined below. He is not sure of its compliance with the structure of Nature. Readers will have to actively comprehend the author's fantasies.

Historical excursion into the problem of ether

About 2000 years ago, Democritus introduced the concept of “atom”. Modern physics has accepted this term and it denotes one of the fundamental cells of the structure of matter - a positively charged nucleus, around which there are electrons in continuous motion, compensating its positive charge with negative charges of electrons. The fact of stable equilibrium between the nucleus and the cloud of electrons is explained by science only using the symbols of quantum mechanics and the Pauli exclusion. Otherwise, the electrons would have to “fall” onto the nucleus. This alone is the success of quantum concepts in physics. The ether was “mortally unlucky” compared to the atom, despite the fact that the concept of ether was used from the time of I. Newton to Fresnel, Fizeau, Michelson, and Lorentz. And Einstein, at the end of his creative life, regretted that he did not use the ether as a medium filling the void of space in the Universe. It’s amazing that physicists, fascinated by the achievements of matrix mathematics describing empty space plus time, disliked the ether so much that they even introduced a new concept - physical vacuum - instead of the ether. But on what basis was a new and clumsy term like pressure chamber introduced instead of the historically deserved term - ether? There is absolutely no reason for such a replacement!

There is historical experimental evidence that the ether is an integral part of our Universe. Let us list the experimental evidence of this.

The very first experiment in this regard was made by the Danish astronomer Olaf Roemer. He observed the satellites of Jupiter at the Paris Observatory in 1676 and noticed a significant difference in the time he obtained for the complete revolution of the satellite Io, depending on the angular distance between the Earth and Jupiter relative to the Sun. At the moments of maximum approaches between the Earth and Jupiter, this cycle was 1.77 days. Roemer first noticed that when the Earth and Jupiter are in opposition, Io is somehow “late” in its orbital motion by 22 minutes relative to the moment of their closest approach. The observed difference allowed him to calculate the speed of light. However, he discovered another variation of the cycle, which reached a maximum at the moments of quadratures of the Earth and Jupiter. At the time of the first quadrature, when the Earth was moving away from Jupiter, Io's cycle was 15 seconds longer than average, and at the time of the second quadrature, when the Earth was approaching Jupiter, it was 15 seconds less. This effect could not and cannot be explained otherwise than by adding and subtracting the Earth’s orbital speed and the speed of light, that is, this observation unambiguously proves the correctness of the classical non-relativistic relation c = c+v. However, the accuracy of Roemer's measurements was low. So his measurements of the speed of light gave results lower by almost 30%. But qualitatively the phenomenon remained unshakable. There is data on modern determinations of the speed of light using Roemer’s method, which turned out to be about 300 110 km/s .

Physicists of the 17th-19th centuries believed that interactions in Nature, including the propagation of light and gravitational forces, are carried out by the universal medium - the ether. Based on this, self-taught physicist Fresnel developed the optical laws of light refraction. Also, another French scientist, Fizeau, conducted a brilliant experiment at that time, in which he showed that the ether is “partially” carried away by a moving medium (water at a speed of 75 m/sec run in a light-beam interferometer). Calculations of the shifts of interference fringes in the device were accurately explained by the joint movement of ether and water.

There is no shortage of modern experimental data on the addition of the speed of light with the speed of movement of planets and stars. The clearest example is the Venus radar experiments in the 1960s (for example, the Crimean Moon Radar) and B. Wallace's analysis of Venus radar data. These results clearly support the formula c = c+v. It is officially indicated that the data processing methods are incorrect.

Astronomers have discovered the so-called stellar aberration associated with the Earth's annual rotation in space. When observing the same star over the course of a year, the telescope has to be tilted in the direction of the Earth's movement so that the beam from the star hits the telescope exactly along the axial line. Over the course of a year, the axis of the telescope moves along an ellipse, the major axis of which is equal to 20.5 arc seconds. This phenomenon is brilliantly explained by the propagation of light from a star in the motionless ether of space.

The latest data on the motionless cosmic ether were obtained after the discovery in 1962 of “relict” thermal radiation at an average temperature of 2.7 degrees Kelvin. The radiation is characterized by a high degree of homogeneity in all possible directions in space. And only recently, based on space observations, insignificant deviations from a uniform distribution were established. They made it possible to determine the approximate speed of movement of the solar system in outer space of about 400 km/sec relative to the stationary ether. Using the anisotropy of background radiation (Efimov and Shpitalnaya in the article “On the question of the motion of the Solar system relative to the background radiation of the Universe” argue that “... it is unlawful to call background radiation relict radiation, as is currently accepted...”) and physicists found , that the total speed of the solar system is approximately 400 km/s with a direction of movement of almost 90 o to the ecliptic plane to the north. But what about all the already tired experiments of Michelson and his other followers?

Since childhood, it has been drilled into our heads that the experiments of Michelson and others led to the conclusion that there is no ether as a stationary medium in space. Is this really the case? Let us list some well-known facts from experimental and theoretical physics. Michelson was, one might say, a passionate supporter of the ether. Over the decades since 1887, he has been perfecting an interferometer designed to detect phase differences in light passing along and across the Earth's motion. Opponents of the ether used the data from the experiments of Michelson, Morley, and Miller as an “irresistible” argument in favor of the absence of ether. But imagine such an eccentric who would begin to measure the movement of the Earth's surface relative to the atmosphere in an anticyclone! Practically, ether is the same substance that has some amazing properties, but it is capable, due to gravity, of forming an ethereal atmosphere on planets, including the Earth... What Michelson and others proved with their experiments is the immobility of the ether at the surface of the Earth. This is a positive result of these experiments. In 1906 prof. Morley retired from active work and ceased to participate in work with the Michelson interferometer, and after a break Miller resumed experiments at the Mount Wilson Observatory, near Pasadena in California at an altitude of 6000 feet. In 1921-1925. About 5,000 separate measurements were taken at various times of the day and night in four different seasons. All these measurements, during which the influence of various factors that could distort the result were checked, gave a stable positive effect corresponding to the real ethereal wind, as if it were caused by the relative movement of the Earth and the ether at a speed of about 10 km/s- and a certain direction, which Miller, after a detailed analysis, later presented as the total movement of the Earth and the Solar system “at a speed of 200 km/s or more, with its apex in the constellation Draco near the pole of the ecliptic with a right ascension of 262 o and an inclination of 65 o. To interpret this effect as an ethereal wind, it is necessary to assume that the Earth entrains the ether, so that the apparent relative motion in the observatory area decreases from 200 km/s or more up to 10 km/s, and that the drag of the ether also shifts the apparent azimuth by about 45 o to the north-west. " First, Prof. Hicks of University College Sheffield in 1902 (and this before the advent of SRT!) established that the result of the experiments of Michelson and Morley was not negligible small and drew attention to the presence of a first-order effect in it. Then in 1933, Miller made a full study of these experiments: “...The full-cycle curves were analyzed using a mechanical harmonic analyzer, which determined the true value of the full-cycle effect; it, being compared with the corresponding speed relative to the movement of the Earth and the ether, showed a speed of 8.8 km/s for midday observations and 8 km/s for evenings." Lorentz paid a lot of attention to experiments according to the Michelson scheme, and to save the “negative” results of the experiments he came up with the famous Lorentz transformations, which were used by A. Einstein in the special theory of relativity (1905).

All these experimental data are elegantly explained by the “attraction” of the ether to heavy objects, or rather, not by attraction, but by the electrical connection of the ether with objects through its polarization (a shift in bound charges, and not an increase in the density of the ether, which will be shown below). Thus, a certain “atmosphere” of polarized ether is electrically connected to Jupiter and Venus and the Earth. This system moves together in the motionless ether of outer space. But according to physics and Einstein in particular, the speed of light in the ether is constant with some accuracy and is determined by the electrical and magnetic permeability of the ether. Therefore, in the “atmosphere” of the planets, light moves together with the planetary ether, i.e. with general speed c + v! in relation to the speed of light in the motionless ether of space. The theory of relativity triumphs:

1. the speed of light in the ether is constant;
2. the speed of light in the etheric atmosphere of planets and stars is greater than the speed of light relative to the ether of space.

Let us briefly dwell on the “attraction” of the ether to cosmic bodies. In this case, attraction cannot be understood in a literal sense as an increase in the density of the ether when approaching the surface of bodies. This interpretation contradicts the extreme strength of ether, which exceeds the strength of steel by many orders of magnitude. The point is completely different. Attraction is directly related to the mechanism of gravity. Gravitational attraction is an electrostatic phenomenon. Near all bodies, the ether, which literally permeates all the insides of each body down to its atoms, consisting of electrons and nuclei, polarization of the ether occurs, a displacement of its bound charges. The greater the body mass (gravity acceleration), the greater the polarization and the corresponding displacement ( + ) And ( - ) in bound ether charges. Thus, the ether is electrically “attached” to each body, and if the ether is between, for example, two bodies, then it attracts the bodies to each other. This is an approximate picture of gravitation and attraction of the ether to the planets and stars.

One may object: how do all bodies move through the ether without encountering noticeable resistance? There is resistance, but it is negligible, since it is not the “friction” of bodies against the motionless ether that occurs, but the friction of the ethereal atmosphere associated with the body against the motionless cosmic ether. Moreover, this boundary between the ether moving with the body and the stationary ether is extremely blurred because the polarization of the ether decreases with distance from the body in inverse proportion to the square of the distance. Go and try to find where this border is! In addition, the ether apparently has very little internal friction. There is still friction, but it probably affects the slowdown of the Earth's rotation speed. The days increase very slowly. It is argued that the growth of the day is caused only by the tidal action of the Moon. Even if this is so, then the internal friction of the ether also contributes to the slowdown of the rotation of the Earth and planets in general. For example, Venus and Mercury, not having their own moons, slowed down their rotation to 243 and 58.6 Earth days, respectively. But to be fair, it should be noted that the solar tide contributes to the slowdown of the rotation of Venus and Mercury. The contribution of etheric friction to the precession of planetary orbits is undoubted. The precession of Mercury's orbit should be the greatest among the other planets, since its orbit passes through the most polarized etheric atmosphere of the Sun.

Where is the main “watershed” in modern physics, based on objective reality and powerful mathematics? He found himself in the concepts of ether and empty space. The ether, adopted back in the 17th century, in the modern understanding is a real medium in which all the basic interactions in Nature are transmitted: gravity, electromagnetism, nuclear forces. Empty space is a mysterious container of physical fields, declared in physics absolutely arbitrarily to be as material as matter. Moreover, it turns out that it is also capable of experiencing curvature according to Einstein! Can a sane reader imagine “empty and crooked space”? But modern theoretical physics can! (based on mathematics, which is capable of placing a coordinate system in any environment and even in emptiness) and at the same time declares that even greater incidents and paradoxes can be expected from Nature. Just never mention common sense in the presence of a physicist. Einstein also spoke about common sense, which turns out to be incompatible with physics. Almost a third of the book is devoted to a fierce criticism of common sense. Therefore, mentioning common sense in physics is tantamount to admitting ignorance.

Penetration into the structure of the ether

Photon ether

By photon ether we will understand a certain “photon field” accepted in physics as a source of virtual photons as exchange particles in electromagnetic interactions.

To penetrate into the structure of the ether, we use the phenomenon of interaction of a photon with the ether. To solve the problem, we assume that the ether has some structure. This is the most important and cardinal assumption in the theory of the ether at the level of hypothesis.

Photon having frequency v, deforms its structure. Being in a structure with a size between its elements r, the photon deforms the structure over a distance dr. In this case, the deformation energy will be e 0 Edr, Where e 0 - charge of an electron or positron, E- electric field strength of the structure. The photon energy is equal to the deformation energy:

Let us determine the electric field strength, where N- a certain proportionality coefficient:

One can assume - speed of light.

Note that this assumption seems natural, but not obvious. Let's determine the unknown number:

,

(5)

Where , - magnetic constant of vacuum, equal to the reciprocal of magnetic permeability, - electric constant of vacuum, equal to the reciprocal of the dielectric constant. As a result, we have the reciprocal number of the fine structure constant. We obtained from (5) the well-known formula for Planck’s constant:

(6)

The operation performed and its result are the first evidence that the task is not hopeless. Number N is somehow connected with the elementary charge according to formula (3) and hints at a possible interpretation as the total number of elementary charges in some ether cluster with which the photon interacts. Another important conclusion: the speed of light, electric and magnetic constants of vacuum are valid for the structure of the ether .

The next step will be to turn to the “photo effect” for the broadcast. It is known that a photon with energy turns into a pair of electron and positron. From a classical point of view, it should probably be said that the photon “knocks out” the indicated pair of particles from the structure of the ether (photoelectric effect in its pure form). This is not far from the fact known in physics that a pair of virtual ether particles is realized under the influence of a photon of the required frequency (energy). Let us choose the value of the red boundary for the photon frequency . Its exact value will be corrected from formula (10) when the value of the fine structure constant appears in the conclusions. It is clear that in reality this frequency may be slightly less or much more. For determining r Let's use the energy equation according to Coulomb's law and photon energy:

We have a distance between the virtual charges of an electron and a positron, forming a certain bound charge of the ether or a dipole, which is 2.014504 times less than the classical radius of the electron. The limiting deformation of the dipole, which is the limit of its “destruction” during the photoelectric effect, is determined from:

This is where the extreme strength of ether comes from! The destruction of the dipole occurs only at 1/137th of the deformation of its entire value! In nature, such a small difference in deformation from a whole number is unknown to achieve the ultimate strength. The photoelectric effect for platinum gives the magnitude of the deformation dr Pt= 6.2×10 -23 m. In other words, ether is “stronger” than platinum by almost 6 orders of magnitude.

The exact value of "" helped to return (see above) and clarify the frequency value as 2.4891 × 10 20 Hz. According to this formula, the tensile strength of the ether is connected through the fine structure constant and the distance in the dipole.

Let us establish a number of relationships useful for identifying the structure of the ether. Let us determine the deformation from an electron located in its environment through the equation of the electron field energy and the deformation energy:

m

(12)

The deformation from the electron, as well as the ratio of the classical radius and the size of the dipole, is 2.0145 times less than the tensile strength. As a result of the deformation of the ether in the presence of an electron or other particle, the photon energy can decrease, which is observed in the vacuum photoelectric effect - the scattering of, for example, two electrons and one positron.

Since a certain dipole is detected in the ether, it is natural to talk about its polarization. Similar judgments about the polarization of the physical vacuum can be found in other authors. Let us establish the connection between the polarization of the ether and the charge of the electron on its surface and at a distance of the Bohr radius:

Since in (14) only structural elements of the ether are used, the polarization calculation can be performed for any deformations from any physical causes affecting the ether.

For example, calculating the deformation due to the acceleration of Earth's gravity:

For the Sun, the average deformation of the ether in the Earth's orbit, calculated from m/s 2 will be: and accordingly the polarization is equal to . To control, we calculate the force of gravity of the Earth from the Sun in two ways:

.

The discrepancy in the results occurs only due to the existing limits of accuracy in determining the input quantities.

If during electromagnetic disturbances the polarization of the ether occurs in the transverse direction to the propagation of the disturbance, then with static electricity and gravitational influences its polarization occurs in the longitudinal direction.

Let us turn to the energy relations for the photoelectric effect. Energy j(formula 7) goes to break the electron+positron bond in the dipole and form a free pair of electron and positron with energy , that is j, where the rupture energy is calculated according to

m	(17)
And
j.	(18)

Note that the ratio of the binding energy to the energy of the positron electron pair is equal to . Thus, the fine structure constant is equal to the ratio of the binding energy of the ether dipole to the energy of the electron and positron pair in a free state of rest. Further, if we calculate the mass defect from the binding energy in the dipole according to accepted concepts in physics, we obtain 1.3295×10 -32 kg. The ratio of the mass of the dipole to the mass defect of its connection will be equal to 137.0348, that is, the reciprocal of the fine structure constant. This example indicates that the so-called “mass defect” is in this case the equivalent of the energy that must be applied to “break” the bond in the dipole.

Continuing the classical approach to the structure, we note that the force of elastic deformation will be determined from

[kg/s 2 ].

(19)

Let's check the accuracy of the calculations. The deformation energy is j, which coincides with the total energy of the photoelectric effect in the ether. Gravity acceleration is required for maximum possible deformation (see above). Let us substitute from here the value of the deformation limit into formula (19) . From the equation we find the unknown mass and find that , where is the Planck mass. This mass is equal to 1.8594446×10 -9 kg. We got another example involving , which testifies in favor of the correctness of the representation of the structure of the ether. It is believed that the Planck mass represents a “watershed” between micro- and macromatter in the Universe. There are works on representing the Planck mass as a certain particle - plankeon or Higgs particles, which are elements of the physical vacuum. In our case, the appearance of a mass approximately 12 times smaller than the Planck mass and somehow related to the maximum permissible acceleration without damaging the structure of the ether, indicates the existence of a certain problem that needs to be solved. But besides this remark we have that this is an almost exact value of the elementary charge. The coefficient is in Table 2.

Figure 1 shows the frequency response of the photoelectric effect in the air - the dependence of the dipole deformation on the photon frequency. The peak at the frequency of the red limit of the photoelectric effect is identified with some degree of convention. The author does not have experimental data to accurately establish the dependence of the photoelectric effect on the photon frequency in this region. But there is no doubt that such experimental data could serve as proof of the proposed theory of the ether. In particular, the "width" of the peak could help determine its height - the predisposition of the ether to the resonant nature of the photoelectric effect. The decrease in the frequency response according to the quadratic dependence towards high frequencies from the photon frequencies confirms the fact of the possible absence of the photoelectric effect in the ether for photons with a frequency exceeding the frequency of the red border. This occurs when observing gamma radiation that is not accompanied by photoelectric effects.

The frequency of natural oscillations of the ether dipole makes it possible to solve the problem of its stability from the same positions as the stability of the atomic structure based on nuclei and electrons. The electron does not “fall” onto the nucleus due to quantum prohibitions. The latter are associated with integer numbers of De Broglie wavelengths that fit into the length of the stable orbit. The ether dipole does not self-destruct due to the integer number of its wavelengths that fit into the orbital trajectory of the dipole.

So, the wavelength of the dipole is:

Dipole circular orbit length m. Naturally, the length of the orbit may be slightly different for an elliptical orbit. Let's take the ratio of quantities. We obtain an approximately integer value of the halves of the wavelengths that fit into the length of the orbit - a quantum condition for the stability of the structure of the ether dipole. The connection with the fine structure number strengthens this statement.

All the indicated “dimensions” (classical radius, size between the centers of bound charges, magnitude of deformation) have practically no everyday meaning. This is what modern physics says, and the reader should be warned about this. They are convenient abstractions that allow you to make calculations and talk about the physical meaning of the deformation of the ether under electromagnetic and gravitational disturbances. But there is another important consequence. It concerns an exchange particle in electromagnetic interaction. Let us recall the most popular Feynman diagram for the interaction of two electrons. Their trajectory of mutual approach and expansion (the latter occurs according to Coulomb’s law) is determined by the virtual photons that the charges exchange. The deformation of the ether between two electrons energetically corresponds to this idea, but does not require an exchange photon.

Let's take two electrons at a distance. The force of action of one electron on the second is determined by the mutual deformation on the “surface” of the second or the corresponding polarization according to formulas (13) and (14)

.

We have the usual Coulomb formula for the action of the first charge on the second. The action decreases according to the law. The deformation of the ether at the point of the second charge according to formula (14) is equal to . Energy of deformation of the ether at the point of the second electron.

For the frequency of the “exchange photon” we obtain .

Figure 2 shows the dependence of the frequency of a virtual exchange photon on the distance between electrons.

For example, at a distance n=100, the photon frequency will be equal to Hz. This frequency will depend on the strain. The application of the concept of an exchange photon is not necessary if the structure of the ether exists. This ether can be called photonic, since electromagnetic waves - “photons” propagate in it, “virtual photons” are formed and there is longitudinal deformation (polarization), which explains ordinary gravity. Generally speaking, the introduction of the laws of Newton and Coulomb (physical fields!) to describe the interaction of exchange particles and their replacement of long-range action with them is a step in the right direction - in recognizing the existence of the ether. Therefore, the transition from the physical vacuum accepted in modern physics to the term “ether” will not be as painful as it is perceived by many specialist physicists.

Meson ether

Accordingly, the meson ether will mean an environment of virtual pi-mesons participating as exchange particles in nuclear interactions.

It is easy to see that the structural element is the mass of the dipole. Multiplying it by , we get a value very close to pion . This coincidence turns out to be not meaningless. If in the previous case the “photon exchange” was reduced to the deformation of the photon ether, then the pion exchange forms the basis of the strong interaction. How do pions deform the ether so that the acting forces during the deformation of the “pion” structure of the ether correspond to intranuclear forces? The existence of three types of “nuclear” pions can, apparently, be somehow taken into account in the structure of the meson ether in order, in a similar way to photon exchange, to find a new interpretation of meson exchange in nucleons, eliminating the need for physics to artificially introduce exchange processes using particles. At the moment we have only one “fact” - in the structure of the photonic ether there is a cluster with a mass that acts during the photoelectric effect and during electromagnetic interaction and is formed by electron + positron pairs. Pions have an independent “life” and are unique clusters, as if formed from electrons and positrons. A pion contains an integer 264.2 electron and positron masses plus 0.2 elementary masses. The integer defines the zero charge of the pion "0". Pions contain an odd number of 273 electron and positron masses. Nature seems to suggest that there is one excess positron, and one excess electron. This idea is purely classical and may be completely inappropriate. One thing is clear that pions represent a single whole (indivisible quantum systems capable of virtual and real existence in accordance with their short lifetimes). The lack of charge pion masses can be interpreted as a bond mass defect or binding energy . For pion "0" we can assume 2 variants of the mass defect: or . The variants can be distinguished by the lifetime of the “0” pion. The longest lifetime is for a particle with a larger mass defect. Since the “0” pion has a lifetime shorter than that of charge pions, the first option should be accepted, that is, . Let us assume that the meson structure of the ether is formed by a triple of pions. This is a significant difference from the structure of the ether, which has an electron + positron pair. At the same time, a certain analogy appears to the qualitative “triple” structure of the nucleus - 2 protons and 1 neutron. They must form an elementary quasi-stable structure according to the polarization scheme proton (+) (-neutron-) (+) proton. In fact, a stable structure of 2 protons is organized only with the help of 4 neutrons, the polarization of which, apparently, best suits the stable spatial structure of the nucleus. Using an already proven technique, we determine the classical radius of pions: .

Energy j and dipole radius m under the assumption that the electrical constant here is equal to the electrical constant of the ether, and the speed “c” is the speed of light. However, this is not at all obvious. Let us leave the last remark without consequences.

The classical radius of charge pions is 0.01 hundredth greater than the strength limit of the photon ether. There is no way to determine the “0” radius of a pion using this method. Of course, you can determine the radius of the triple using the diagram

pi(+) (-pi+) (-)pi

In this case, their total mass is even greater and the radius is 5.2456 × 10 -18 m. The Yukawa radius is m, at nuclear distances much smaller than this radius, nuclear forces manifest themselves to the greatest extent. The classical radii of charge pions satisfy this condition. They are 150-300 times smaller than the radius of Yukawa. Of all the models of the atomic nucleus, the Yukawa model is most consistent with the meson theory of nuclear forces. Let's calculate the forces using the Coulomb and Yukawa formulas:

,

(21)

Where m- classical proton radius. It is included in the formulas, since nucleons cannot and should not approach shorter distances. Figure 3 shows graphs for calculating these forces. It should be repeated here that the electrical constant of pions may not coincide with the electrical constant of the photonic ether and that this example ignores the presence of neutral particles that are necessary to stabilize the nucleus. The last circumstance, which can change the picture in Fig. 3, may turn out to be significant. This example is given only to compare “nuclear” forces with Coulomb forces. It turns out that the Yukawa “potential” takes into account the short-range action of nuclear forces at distances greater than 10 -15 m. At smaller distances, the Yukawa “potential” coincides with the potential of the Coulomb forces. At distances between nucleons less than 5×10 -18 m the attractive force increases sharply and reaches a maximum at the classical proton radius (infinity - not shown on the graph), after which the potential becomes negative and a repulsive force appears. Qualitatively, this resembles the behavior of nuclear forces. Near a proton, the apparent “nuclear” forces are approximately 2 orders of magnitude greater than the Coulomb forces at ordinary distances. For a more accurate description of nuclear forces, it is necessary to introduce neutral particles into consideration: the neutron and the “0” pion. The specificity of neutral particles can only lie in their ability to polarize, as if there were bound charges in their structure and their ability to gravitational interaction. Otherwise, it remains to recognize the presence of nuclear forces other than Coulomb forces. This model does not take into account the charge distribution inside the nucleons, nucleon spins, etc., which introduces important details into the structure of nuclear forces.

In Fig. 3 one more fact can be noted, which should be attributed to a funny coincidence. The left slope of the graph refers to the interaction force proportional to the square of the distance, and not to its inverse! With increasing distance between quarks located inside nucleons - distances less than 10 -18 m, the “tension” force of gluons increases with increasing distance. This is what the left slope of the graph demonstrates. The force at the peak becomes infinite, which guarantees the strength of the gluon forces, and therefore “free” quarks are impossible.

To penetrate into the meson environment of the ether, we will use the phenomenon of the nuclear photoelectric effect. It is known that to excite a nucleus and subsequent ejection of a meson from it, a photon energy of 140 MeV or 140 × 1.6 10 -13 is required j. If we assume, as in the case of the photon field, that the meson field is formed by bound charges (dipoles) from pions (+) and (-), then the photon energy should exceed 280 × 1.6 × 10 -13 j. A photon cluster is formed from . The rest energy of the mass of two photon clusters for one meson cluster with charges (+) and (-) will be equal to j. It is necessary to take into account the mass defect in the meson cluster, i.e. in reality its rest energy will be equal to j.

We find j. By analogy with formula (7), we determine the distance between the centers in the meson dipole:

and limiting (threshold) deformation

m.

(24)

Let us control the results obtained similarly to formulas (17) and (18):

j.

The discrepancy with the previous result is only in the fourth digit, that is, we can assume that the calculations were carried out correctly. Thus, it is enough to produce in the nucleus in any way a deformation of bound charges greater than that defined in (24), and at least one pion will be released from the nucleus.

Let us find the elasticity coefficient of the meson dipole using the same method as in the case of the photonic dipole (see formula (19)),

kg/s 2

(25)

The elasticity of the meson ether is 7 orders of magnitude higher than the photon ether. The natural frequency of the dipole is 1.6285×10 26 Hz. Need to put in some energy j, to break the meson dipole and produce two pi mesons. It is 265 times higher than the binding energy of the photon field (the ratio of nuclear and electromagnetic interactions). Since we have not discovered a difference between Coulomb and specific nuclear forces, the next logical step is possible. Formula (25) provides an opportunity to introduce the concept of Newtonian interaction in the nucleus and this opportunity should be taken advantage of. According to this “arbitrariness,” the meson ether must have a gravitational constant different from the gravitational constant of the photon ether. Let's find the meson gravity constant:

Thus, the photon ether and meson ether determine in the first case ordinary gravity and electromagnetism, in the second case nuclear gravity and nuclear electromagnetism. Electromagnetism probably unites all interactions in nature. The issue of weak interaction is not considered here. It must be assumed that it can also be solved on the basis of the structure of the meson ether. It can be assumed that weak interactions manifest themselves in the spontaneous destruction of meson clusters into positrons, neutrinos, gamma radiation, etc.

Hypothesis

It was already noted above that in physics the classical radii of particles are not recognized as the reality of the microworld, and the possibility of the formation of some particles from such elementary particles as the electron and positron is not recognized. Instead, hypothetical quarks are introduced, which carry fractional charges, colors, flavors, charms, etc. In general, with the help of quarks, a coherent picture of the structure of hadrons and, in particular, mesons has been developed. Quantum chromodynamics was created on a quark basis. Only one thing is missing - the detection of signs of the existence of unbound particles with a fractional charge - quarks in a free state. The theoretical advances in quark models are undeniable. And yet let's try to put forward another hypothesis. To do this, we will again use the experimental fact of the nucleon photoelectric effect. It is known that to create a proton-antiproton pair, a gamma quantum with energy is required. From this energy it follows that the mass defect or binding energy of the proton+antiproton pair is equal to . The ratio of the binding energy to the energy of the proton and antiproton gives us, from experience with the photonic ether, a constant alpha for the forces in nucleons, which coincides with existing concepts in physics.

There is a strong belief in physics that hadrons cannot consist of more elementary particles. However, the experience of studying the photonic and meson structures of the ether suggests the opposite - from elementary electrons and positrons it is possible to construct ether clusters or pions that are part of the ether dipoles. Therefore, we will formulate a hypothesis. Protons and antiprotons can be formed from mesons and pions. For example, a particle with a mass of 1836.12 electron masses can contain 3 pairs of charge pions, one positive pion and 7 neutral pions. The structure of a proton or antiproton includes “homogeneous” charge mesons participating in strong interactions. The excess mass of 1836.12 electron masses constitutes a binding energy mass defect. It corresponds to enormous energy, which ensures greater stability of protons (lifetime of hundreds of billions of years). This hypothesis corresponds to:

1. Nucleon photoelectric effect;
2. Attempts to extract a free quark from the nucleus, the results of which end in the appearance of a pion, which participates in the interaction of nucleons in the nucleus.

The general mass equation for the photoelectric effect corresponds to , where is the antiproton. The first coefficient falls short of 0.2792 to form the number 7, the second - only 0.0476. The shortage can be attributed to a mass defect for 7 charged and 7 neutral pions in the corresponding clusters included in the proton and antiproton. In practice, it turns out that the entire mass of 7 neutral pions constitutes the binding energy of a proton and an antiproton. Digressing from the topic, we will suggest that the so-called “mass defect”, corresponding to the binding energy of the new formation, points the way to elucidating the nature of the mass and, possibly, the nature of the charge. The same problem concerns the phenomenon of annihilation of a proton and an antiproton, in which, in theory, energy should be released, and not energy, as follows from the gamma photoelectric effect as a phenomenon opposite to annihilation and accompanied by the appearance of a proton-antiproton pair.

Let's use the results of the nucleon photoelectric effect. Gamma quantum energy. Dipole distance of the nucleon ether: m. Electrical or nucleon elasticity kg/s 2. Proton strength limit m. In fact, this means that it is impossible to deform a proton beyond its radius.

Let us estimate the nucleon gravitational constant:

(28)

It is slightly greater than the meson constant of gravity, more precisely by 0.19459 × 10 25. What does the nucleon constant of gravity mean? Nothing more or less than the condition for the stability of the nucleon (proton) - the Coulomb repulsive forces of the proton charge are equalized by the Newtonian force of attraction, that is

.

Unfortunately, the photoelectric effect is unknown for the electron - the electron cannot be divided using gamma radiation. Otherwise, it would be possible to calculate what forces balance the Coulomb repulsion of the electron charge with a value of 29.0535 n. This value was determined based on the classical electron radius. Let us determine at what radius of the electron the force of Newtonian attraction of the electron will equalize the above-mentioned repulsive force:

(29)

If such assumptions can pass for a fair hypothesis that can be considered quite seriously, then the electron is a two-layer structure - the mass nucleus of the electron has a radius of 1.534722 × 10 -18 m, the charge surface has a classical radius of 2.81794092×10 -15 m. A strange coincidence - the ratio of the classical radius and the mass radius of the electron is 1836.125. That is, a number that exactly matches the mass number of a proton! With the above calculations, the search for a random intersection of the classical radius with the derivation of the electron mass radius did not give the expected result, i.e., we can assume that they were deduced regardless from each other. Note also that the resulting electron mass radius is only 0.22% smaller than the size of the nucleon dipole. For curiosity's sake, let's determine the electron volume density 6.0163×10 22 kg/m 3. The proton density is almost 2000 times greater. Below is the summary table:

Table 1

Ether particles	Mass number	Quantum energy	Dipole, m	Strength, m	Elasticity, kg/s 2
e - , e +	137,0359	2m e c 2	1.398826×10 -15	1.020772×10 -17	1.155065×10 19
p+ p- p o	273,1 273,1 264,1	2p + c 2 2p - c 2	5.140876×10 -18	1.635613×10 -20	5.211357×10 26
p+ p-	1836,12 1836,12	4m p c 2	3.836819×10 -19	3.836819×10 -19	4.084631×10 27

It was indicated above that pi-mesons and protons can, contrary to popular scientific assertions, be represented as formed from the only elementary particles - electrons and positrons. Thus, the ether has its natural roots from these elementary particles, which unite all the “varieties” of the ether. It is logical to conclude that the main structural unit of the ether is the pi-meson. In the cosmic ether, it is quite “loose” and lends itself to the elementary photoelectric effect with the “knocking out” of one electron-positron pair. In the core, the meson ether is “packed” more densely, and the photoelectric effect is expressed in the “knocking out” of either one pi-meson or a pair of charged pi-mesons of different signs. In a nucleon, the meson ether is even more densely “packed” and significant energy of a gamma photon is required to “knock out” the already integer meson packings - proton and antiproton. The unified structure of Nature is confirmed.

Gravity

Gravity and inertia

The formula derived from the interaction of a photon, electron with the photon ether turns out to be valid for gravitational interaction. In this sense, the deformation of bound charges (polarization) of the ether has a universal nature for electromagnetism, electrostatics and gravitation. The difference lies in the direction of polarization relative to the propagation of the interaction - longitudinal for electrostatics and gravity, transverse for electromagnetic phenomena.

In physics, the concepts of the speed of light in vacuum, electric and magnetic permeability of vacuum are well known. This is usually perceived as an incident in choosing a system of units. But one thing is absolutely clear that these quantities are necessary, for example, in Coulomb’s laws. Let us add Newton's law to them:

(30)

where is the gravitational constant, is the magnetic constant of the vacuum, equal to the reciprocal of the magnetic permeability, is the electric constant of the vacuum, equal to the reciprocal of the dielectric constant.

The inverse values ​​of permeabilities for Coulomb's laws are taken only for the purpose of some unification, which will simply be more convenient in the future.

Without introducing the gravitational constant and vacuum permeability, it is impossible to represent these laws in units of force, mass, and distance. True, there are attempts to radically change the systems of units so that constant proportionality may turn out to be equal to dimensionless units. However, this path is practically unpromising, since we will obtain systems of units in which their complete set cannot be obtained equal to dimensionless units. For example, if we accept in the system of units, then automatically v = c 2 (c- speed of light). And similarly, if we accept v= 1, then with the same automaticity we obtain . An even more absurd situation can be obtained in the case =1.

We have some formalism in writing laws (30), using the concepts of constants of gravity, electricity and magnetism, the values ​​of which are related to vacuum. Let's proceed purely formally - make a table.

table 2

	Parameter	Formula	Essential formula analogue	Magnitude	Name	Dimension
	1	2	3	4	5	6
1		Newton		6.67259×10 -11	Gravitational constant	[ m 3 kg -1 With -2 ]
2		pendant		8.987551×10 9	Electrical constant	[ a -2 m 3 kg With -4 ]
3		pendant		1.00000031×10 7	Magnetic constant	[ a 2 m -1 kg -1 With 2 ]
4				8.6164×10 -11	Specific gravitational charge of mass	[ a kg -1 With ]
5				29,97924	Specific magnetic mass of charge	[ a -2 m 2 kg With -3 ]
6				2.5826×10 -9	Specific magnetic mass	[ a -1 m 2 With -2 ]
7				1.3475×10 27	Moment of Inertia Density	[ kg m 2 / m 3 ]
8			c	2.9979245×10 8	Speed ​​of light	[ m / With ]
9				0,0258	Specific quantity of electric motion	[ q m c -1 kg -1 ]
10				0,7744	Specific surface electrical intensity	[ a -1 m 3 c -2 ]

The 1st column shows options for designating quantities for the macrocosm, following row by row to the right. The second column in lines 1-3 are simply formulas (28), and below are options for their combinations, that is, all parameters 1-10 are derivatives of Newton’s and Coulomb’s laws.

The third column presents new formulas of columns 2 and 4, compiled independently of Newton’s and Coulomb’s laws, but using constants of the microworld, which, due to the logic of a single table, can also be attributed to the parameters of the photon ether:

m- Planck length, q- charge of an electron or positron,
And js- Planck's constant, - fine structure constant.

The gravitational constant in column 3 can be easily obtained from well-known formulas:

, , and from here .

(31)

The connection between the gravitation constant and the structural and electrical constants, well known in physics, is explicitly obtained. Using the experience of compiling (31), it is easy to obtain all other relations in column 3.

It is important to emphasize that all the formulas of the third column, based on the parameters of the microworld, correspond with great accuracy and in full agreement with the dimensions to columns 4 and 6, respectively.

The simplest thing is the speed of light in a vacuum. There are no comments on its existence in the table, except for one thing: if in column 2 it looks like an “ordinary” constant due to the way it is composed, then in column 3 it dominates with the exception of constant 5. The same is true for constant 7. It finds its place within the Schwarzschild radius:

(32)

The issue is simply resolved with an unknown constant r q.

j,

(33)

Here the photon energy is given for the red boundary of the photoelectric effect. Here Hz- photon frequency. What its name in column 5 means remains a physical mystery, perhaps meaningless.

It is easy to show that the constant is included in the expression for determining the acceleration of gravity for a body with mass M (Q- mass charge):

that is, if there is a physical meaning for the constant . This is where the table enters the hypothetical zone. Let us assume that there really is an electric charge of any mass, proportional to its size. This position was verified by determining the magnetic fields of the planets of the Solar System. If planets have an electric charge, which, due to Coulomb repulsion, gravitates toward the surface of the planet’s sphere, then, knowing the speed of its rotation, we can estimate the planet’s magnetic field on its rotation axis using the formula

(35)

Where M- weight, T- rotation period, R- radius of the planet.

Calculation data and their comparison with experimental data are shown in Table 3.

Table 3

Planet	Tension a/m		Main settings
	Measurement	Calculation	Weight, kg	Period	Radius, m
Sun	80, up to 10 5 in spots	4450	1.9847×10 30	25 days 9.1 hours	6.96×10 9
Mercury	0,7	0,09	3.31×10 23	58,644 days	2.5×10 6
Venus	less than 0.05	0,12	4.87×10 24	243 days	6.2×10 6
Earth	50	37,4	6×10 24	23 hours 56 minutes	6.373×10 6
Moon	0.024 per h=55 km	0,061	7.35×10 22	27,321 days	1.739×10 6
Mars	0,052	7,34	6.44×10 23	24 hours 37 minutes	3.391×10 6
Jupiter	1140	2560	1.89×10 27	9 hours 55 minutes	7.14×10 7
Saturn	84	880	5.69×10 26	10 hours 14 minutes	5.95×10 7
Uranus	228	300	8.77×10 25	10 hours 45 minutes	2.507×10 7
Neptune	13,3	250	1.03×10 26	15 hours 48 minutes	2.49×10 7

The table shows a mixed picture. For example, for the Earth, Jupiter, Uranus, the Moon and Venus, the discrepancy lies almost within the limits of deviations of 2 times; the worst comparison (100-10 -7 times) is obtained for Mars, Saturn and Mercury, respectively.

If, when interpreting these results, we take into account other possible sources of the magnetic field (magnetic dynamo, solar wind, etc.), then for most planets the result is quite optimistic from the point of view of the coincidence of calculations and observational data. The result for the Earth, for which magnetic observations have been carried out for centuries, unlike other planets, further emphasizes the significance of the calculations. Of course, a simple coincidence cannot be ruled out, of which there are plenty in physics. A typical example is Venus with a rotation period of 243 days and the Earth with a rotation period of almost a day. The magnetic fields of these planets clearly follow the law of dependence on the rotation speed: the slow rotation of Venus is a small field, the fast rotation of the Earth is a large field.

Questions may immediately arise about the polarity of charges and their interactions among many gravitating objects. The first question about the sign of the charge is answered unambiguously by the direction of the Earth's magnetic field and the direction of its rotation - the Earth has a negative electric charge. To explain gravity and antigravity in the Universe using the photon ether, it is necessary to rely on an essential hypothesis - the photon ether must have a weak electric charge. Then we can schematically depict the attraction of all bodies in the ether to each other, using the example of two bodies:

(-body1+)(- + - + -ether- + - + -)(+body2-)

Coulomb attraction (gravity)

(- - - - broadcast - - - -)

Coulomb self-repulsion (antigravity)

The diagram explains in the first case how the attraction of bodies with identical charge signs occurs. The presence of excess, in this scheme of negative charge in the ether, ensures the attraction of bodies to each other. In the second case, the absence of bodies in the ether or their distance from each other (using the example of outer space) causes repulsion or expansion forces of the Universe - these are the forces of its antigravity.

A more general approach can be applied to the constant. The expression for the gravitational "running" constant is known. Its name “running” stems from some arbitrariness in the choice of mass m, which can be, for example, the mass of a proton or electron.

Let us take the ratio of gravitational alpha to electrical . Planck's constant has decreased in relation. Transformation of the formula leads to and, accordingly, to the dependence of the specific mass charge. It is easy to see that the specific mass charge does not depend on m(it enters as the square of its magnitude and cancels with the one in the denominator in this formula) and is entirely determined by the elementary charge and other constants , not connected by mass. This indicates that gravitational alpha, determined by mass, is not fundamental in gravitational interaction. Fundamental in gravity should be considered the elementary charge, the gravitational constant, the speed of light, Planck's constant and the fine structure constant (electric alpha). All of the above indirectly and purely theoretically confirms the electrical nature of gravity and thus suggests the conclusion about reducing the 4 known interactions to 3: weak, electromagnetic, strong, arranged according to the degree of growth of forces. This conclusion also corresponds to the relationship between the macro and micro parameters of the ether, given in Table 3.

In nature there is a minimum mass equal to the mass of the electron. Its gravitational electric charge is equal to . For the minimum mass there is this minimum quantum of gravitational charge. Their number in an electron , if we assume that the nature of the gravitational charge does not differ in principle from ordinary electric charges. Its expression through microparameters

Polarization of the ether, acceleration of gravity

Within the framework of the principles of ether theory, we will consider the question of the surface density of gravitational electric charge in space from spherical masses (a kind of question about the polarization of PV in space). The polarization of the ether in the presence of one spherical body is calculated by the formula

,

(34)

Where Q- gravitational electric charge of the spherical mass, R- radius of the ball.

From this we can trace, in particular, the law of inverse squares of distances in the formulas of gravitational and electromagnetic interactions. It is connected naturally to the surface of the ball R 2, and not with its volume R 3 or with linear distance R from the center of the body. Polarization near Earth . For the Sun charge . The surface charge density from the Sun and its value near the Earth will be respectively equal:

Gravity acceleration on the surface of the Sun, average solar acceleration in Earth's orbit. As can be seen, the acceleration of gravity is determined by the surface density of the gravitational electric charge and the parameter. Let us write a general formula for calculating the acceleration of gravity:

Where - mutual polarization of the ether from the side of two bodies. This is what the force of attraction between two bodies looks like according to the combined Coulomb-Newton law.

Deformation of physical vacuum and the speed of gravitational interaction

Let us use the precedent of the energy equation for a photon and derive the dependence of the deformation of the ether on the acceleration of gravity of the gravitating masses. Let us make an equation between the energy of the “gravifield” and the deformation energy of the PV node.

For example, to speed up g= 9.82 we find that the deformation of the PV will be only dr g= 1.2703×10 -22 m. For the Sun dr s= 6.6959×10 -19 m. The first equation will determine the deformation of “space”, since g depends on the distance in space from the source of acceleration. Gravitational deformation must have an upper limit that can be exceeded at high mass densities or, otherwise, at high gravitational accelerations. So far we have the only estimate of the maximum deformation that occurs during the photoelectric effect. Let's estimate the maximum permissible acceleration due to gravity:

Smaller “black holes” “destroy” the ether medium (“evaporation” of black holes). Let's find the connection between the maximum possible acceleration of gravity and the radius of the object and its mass. It follows elementarily from the relation

.

Respectively . From these relations we find that there are no restrictions on the mass of black holes or the central parts of galaxies. It depends on the radius of the object. The last relations cast doubt on the correctness of the notation in (42). Hardly R g min exhausts the entire range of possible radii of “black holes”. On page 18 an unknown mass appeared, 12 times less than the Planck mass. Let's calculate its value: . Let's determine its possible size (radius).

Let's take And m. We obtained the size of the dipole for the cosmic ether with almost great accuracy. What this means remains to be understood. Where does this coincidence come from? You can also estimate the density of a given object. Density kg/m 3. The highest density available to Nature. It is 13 orders of magnitude greater than the proton density. Minimum "black hole"? It also produces the maximum acceleration due to gravity, as do larger black holes. Let's calculate the gravitational electric charge of mass: Cl, i.e. just the charge of an electron! Knowledge of accuracy for r And E s up to the 4th character is not enough. The electron charge turns out to be equivalent in terms of the interaction of electrical forces and gravitational forces to the mass m x. All this information is contained in the relationships between the dipole distance and the tensile strength of the ether. Weight m x gives another reason to determine the reason for the existence of the ether charge.

Let's calculate how many pairs of electrons and positrons are in this mass: . From this we obtain the amount of charge by which the electron charge exceeds the positron charge Cl. In practice, this difference value corresponds to 21 signs of the electron charge. We find this sign. Comparing the previously obtained value of the minimum gravitational charge possessed by the elementary mass, we find that

Complete coincidence with a possible error at 2. Somewhere there was a failure to take into account pairs of an electron and a positron.

Near massive objects, due to the deformation of the ether, the speed of light decreases. The magnitude of the relative deformation determines the speed of light near powerful sources of gravity. Experimental formula for the dependence of the speed of light on relative deformation: . For example, the angle of refraction of light passing tangent to the surface of the Sun will be equal to , which is practically confirmed by experience.

For the limiting deformation at , the speed of light is zero. The “mass of a black hole” has this property, and the ultimate deformation will correspond to its “event horizon.” Exceeding the limiting deformation will lead to intense production of electron-positron pairs, in accepted terminology - to the evaporation of a black hole. In addition, a red shift will be observed when radiation is emitted from a source on a heavy object, known as the “dilation” of time in A. Einstein’s theory. Red shift arises from the transition of a ray of light from the ether at low speed into outer space with the usual speed value according to the formula , Where .

The polarization on the "surface" of the Universe is equal to and the corresponding average strain would look like

The frequency (8) and wavelength corresponding to this deformation are equal to . They fall approximately at the maximum of the Planck spectrum of black body radiation at a temperature T = 0.67 K o, which is approximately 4 times lower than T = 2.7 K o. “Relict” radiation ceased to exist from the era of its origin, but turned into the modern activity of the ether of the Universe.

As can be seen from the above, electricity determines electromagnetic waves and gravity. There is a significant difference between the latter. An electromagnetic wave begins with the transverse movement of a bound charge of the ether under the influence of a “source” and the next bound charge in the direction of propagation is involved in this movement, but facing the initiator with a charge of the opposite sign, according to Coulomb’s law. Displacement currents are formed, directed along the movement of charges in one direction, but with opposite signs. It follows from this that between currents in the perpendicular direction a magnetic intensity appears as the sum of two magnetic intensities. In addition to the mutual “conversion” of electrical and magnetic energy, the resulting magnetic field plays the role of a damper, limiting the speed of light propagation. Thus, connected dipole charges are repeaters of an electromagnetic wave. This is an extremely important understanding, since the light reaching the observer is not a primordial phenomenon or a photon emitted from a source, but a signal relayed many times.

It would be correct to note that if the ideas about the ether outlined above turn out to be real, then both the photon and the electromagnetic wave will remain only convenient and familiar mathematical abstractions, like the space metrics of Euclid, Lobachevsky, Riemann, Minkowski (mathematical knowledge of the physical structure of space does not require application of abstract mathematical metrics).

Anticipating the main assessment of the speed of propagation of gravity, let us consider the element of deformation under electromagnetic influence. Let's take Ampere's formula in scalar form:

Where V- a certain rate of deformation directed perpendicular to the propagation of electromagnetic interaction. In electromagnetic interaction, the magnetic and electric forces are equal:

(45)

We found that the rate of perpendicular deformation of the ether can exceed the speed of propagation of electromagnetic disturbance by many orders of magnitude and tends to infinity at “zero” frequencies. The rate of deformation is “restrained” by the magnetic component of the signal, which decreases as the frequency increases according to the well-known law of the dependence of the magnetic field on the speed of movement of charges.

Gravity is explained by an electrostatic “field” that is transmitted in the ether as a longitudinal signal. It cannot be otherwise, since any transverse propagation of the electric “field” immediately becomes an electromagnetic wave. With the longitudinal action of Coulomb's law, a longitudinal movement of the polarization front occurs between bound charges, which is not accompanied by the appearance of a magnetic field between charges of the same sign moving in parallel in the same direction. In this case, the magnetic intensity must cover moving charges like current in a conductor. Since the electrostatic “field” or gravitational “field” appears in the form of a central and often generally spherical one, the magnetic intensity turns out to be completely compensated for an object gravitating or charged with static electricity, that is, its damping effect is absent. This means a truly enormous speed (if not instantaneous!) of propagation of a longitudinal wave in the ether. In the case of instantaneous speed of gravity, our Universe turns out to be a single system in which any part of it “realizes” itself in complete unity with the whole. This is the only way it can exist and develop.

Let us again turn to the equation of gravitational (electrostatic) energy for the ether dipole:

.

Here the forces of Coulomb interaction and accelerated motion of the charge, multiplied by the longitudinal movement of the charges towards each other and each by the amount of deformation dr, form the equality of the potential and kinetic energies of bound charges during polarization deformation. As the magnitude of the deformation, we take the average deformation for the Universe (see above).

m/s

(46)

It's logical to take time t equal to 1 second, as a certain temporary “step” in the process of acquiring speed (acceleration after 1 s will give the zero initial speed its “final” speed). We get an almost instantaneous speed value. The gravitational signal travels along the radius of the Universe in 1.7376×10 -11 sec.

Issues of cosmology and astrophysics

Ether, as a dielectric, has bound charges. Bound charges in the nodes of the crystal lattice of the ether are not neutral. They have a superiority of negative charge over positive charge. Only with the help of a weak electric charge of the ether can gravity be explained as the attraction of bodies with electric charges of the same sign. Formulas for calculating gravitational electric charge mass and magnetic charge mass:

preventing the accelerated movement of a charge with force F, which occurs when the charge accelerates q. In (48) a sign (-) is added, which only means that the force f directed against the force defining the acceleration. The formula does not rely on the principle of equivalence of gravity and inertia, as the only so far and far from perfect way of interpreting inertia in general relativity. Mach's principle is simply ridiculous and is excluded from candidates for explaining inertia.

Based on general relativity, RTG and quantum theories in physics, scenarios for the development of the Universe since the Big Bang have been developed. The inflationary theory of the origin of the Universe is considered to be the most appropriate to the modern state of theoretical physics. It is based on the idea of ​​a “false” physical vacuum (ether), devoid of matter. The special quantum state of the ether, devoid of matter, led to an explosion and the subsequent birth of matter. The most amazing thing is the precision with which the act of birth of the Universe took place: “... If at the moment of time corresponding to 1 With... the expansion rate would differ from its real value by more than 10 -18, this would be enough to completely destroy the delicate balance." However, the main feature of the explosive birth of the Universe is the bizarre combination of repulsion and gravity. "It is not difficult to show that the effects cosmic repulsion can be attributed to ordinary gravity, if a medium with unusual properties is chosen as a source of the gravitational field... cosmic repulsion is similar to the behavior of a medium with negative pressure." This position is extremely important not only in matters of cosmology, astrophysics, but also in physics in general In the work, cosmic repulsion or antigravity received a natural interpretation based on the combined Newton-Coulomb law.

The most important hypothetical property of the ether is its weak electrical charge, due to which gravity exists in the presence of matter and antigravity (negative pressure, Coulomb repulsion) in the absence of matter or in the case of its separation over cosmic distances.

Based on these ideas, the total charge of the Universe was calculated:

The sign of the charge is determined based on the sign of the Earth's magnetic field, which is determined by the negative electric charge of the Earth's mass, which performs daily rotational motion. Calculation of the magnetic field strength along the axis of rotation gave a value of 37 a/m with real tension at the magnetic poles on average 50 a/m. The total charge of the Universe corresponds to a density of 1.608·10 -29 g/cm 3, which coincides in order of magnitude with the conclusions of the RTG theory. The presented data confirm the consistency of its main provisions with the current state of generally accepted physics. The concept of inertia will be useful below. It is expressed by formula (48).

To identify the effect of antigravity, the carrier of which is the electrically charged ether, let’s calculate the current charge density of space:

Where R- distance of the potential and electric field measurement point from the charge. Using formulas (48) and (51), we determine the self-repulsion acceleration (antigravity acceleration):

Where m- radius of the Universe, currently accepted.

Formulas (35) and (39) for determining the acceleration of antigravity forces include Newton’s gravitational constant (see Table 1). Therefore, there is nothing mysterious or surprising in the fact that the act of the Big Bang was carried out with great precision in the balance of gravity and antigravity. Substitution of all famous quantities gives:

G= - 8.9875×10 -10 R ms -2

(55)

We have in our hands a tool for assessing the self-repulsion of any space object. Relevant data for the solar system have been obtained. For ease of review, they are shown in the table:

Table 4

	Planet	Acceleration, g on the planet, ms -2	Acceleration G repulsions on the planet, ms -2	Acceleration of the Sun gs at a point on the planet ms -2	Attitude gs/G	Attitude G/g
1	2	3	4	5	6	7
1
6	Saturn	5,668	- 0,0535	0,000065077	0,0012	0,0094
7	Uranus	8,83	- 0,0231	0,000016085	6.9632×10 -4	0,0026
8	Neptune	11,00	- 0,0224	0,0000065515	2.9248×10 -4	0,0020

We obtained some interesting parameters of the solar system. The Earth occupies a “special” position among the terrestrial planets. The force of vacuum repulsion is “compensated” by the force of solar attraction. Moreover, full compensation occurs at aphelion ( gs a= 0.0057). The ratio of accelerations of solar origin on Earth and vacuum repulsion with an accuracy of 3% is equal to unity for average distance of the Earth from the Sun (column 6). The planet Mars is close to this indicator. Mars turns out to be the closest to Earth in many respects (the difference from unity for Mars is 13%). Venus is in the “worst” position (ratio 2) and, especially, Mercury - 17.7. Apparently, this indicator is somehow connected with the physical conditions of the existence of planets. The group of planets of Jupiter differs sharply in the indicated ratio from the terrestrial group of planets (the indicator of column 6 is from 0.0012 to 0.00029248). The 7th column shows the ratio of repulsion accelerations to gravity accelerations. It is characteristic that for the terrestrial group of planets it is of the same order, is a fairly small number and is approximately 0.00066. For the group of giant planets, this figure is 100 times greater, which apparently determines a significant difference in the planets of both groups. Thus, the size and composition of the planets turn out to be decisive in the ratios of accelerations of gravitational and antigravitational forces for the planets of the solar system. Using tool (55), we obtain the boundary density of any cosmic object, separating states of gravitational stability from decay due to Coulomb repulsion:

.

(56)

For comparison: 1 m 3 water has a weight of 1000 kg. And yet the boundary density is not negligible.

Let us pose the problem of estimating the initial acceleration of repulsion during the inflationary expansion of the Universe. Inflationary theory is based on the initial condition of the existence of a physical vacuum without “matter”. In such a state, the vacuum experiences maximum Coulomb repulsion and its expansion is characterized by large negative accelerations. According to the law of conservation of charge at the current radius of the Universe, acceleration is calculated by the formula:

Setting the radius of the Universe, we obtain the initial acceleration during the Big Bang. For example, for radius 1 m acceleration during the Big Bang will be 4.4946 × 10 42 ms-2. We assume that the time of accelerated motion T from zero speed to maximum speed 3×10 8 ms-1 the motion of matter is determined according to Einstein's postulate.

From here . This estimate gives an idea of ​​the magnitude of the acceleration over a period of time T given above for the initial Universe with radius 1 m. Since the initial size is chosen arbitrarily, it is useful to plot the dependence of time T on the size of the embryo of the Universe. Calculation formula:

With.

(59)

The fact that acceleration is characterized by the explosive nature of the expansion of the Universe is beyond any doubt. However, the general picture of the initial Universe in theoretical physics, based on quantum concepts and the theory of the structure of matter, takes into account the conditions of singularity, i.e. the existence of a mathematical point from the “bowels” of which matter was ejected at a moment in time T > 0 sec. The first significant time of birth is the Planck time 10 -43 With. In our case, for Planck time, the “mathematical” point acquires a size determined by the radius R= 3.87×10 -5 m. In any case, quantum concepts in the theory of the ether, most likely, would not fulfill the fundamental role that is necessary in generally accepted cosmology. Here the explosive nature of the birth of the Universe will also be for time T order 1 With. The corresponding acceleration is 2.9979×10 18 m/s 2, and the initial radius is about 1.2239×10 17 m(about 70 times smaller than our galaxy). These initial conditions are sufficient for the explosive nature of the Universe. This requires a “black superhole” of satisfactory size and does not require the concept of singularity. The actual initial conditions must be investigated further. The problem is to determine the possibility of the existence of a “black hole” with the maximum permissible density. The connection between the maximum density and the radius of the “black hole” has been established:

thus being a "black hole". Let us repeat the estimate of the maximum radius of a “black hole” for a given total electric charge based on the concept of the second cosmic velocity. A black hole is characterized by the fact that the second cosmic velocity exceeds or is equal to the speed of light. We obtain a formula for estimating the radius of such an object:

m

(62)

The assessment is the same as the original one. The result is paradoxical. Formula (47) was taken from a physics textbook and derived on the basis of the equality of kinetic energy and potential energy when a test body is transferred from the surface of a space object to infinity. It exactly corresponds to the radius of K. Schwarzschild, who solved the matrix of general relativity.

Our Universe, without a doubt, is a “black hole” for possible external worlds: its initial and current radii fall within the range of sizes acceptable for similar space objects - from 10 -36 to 3 × 10 26 m! A natural question arises: at what acceleration of the expansion of the Universe can we consider it to be in a state of explosion? Only by answering this question can one really estimate the moment of its birth and its initial size. Upon reaching a size of 10 26 m, if the Universe does not begin to contract earlier, it will become accessible to contacts and observations from other similar open Universes, since the electromagnetic signal will in principle be able to leave it. A radius of 10 -36 m seems realistic only for mathematical description. A similar situation could have been avoided if Einstein’s postulate about the maximum speed as applied to the boundary of the ether and truly empty space, in which no physical interactions can be transmitted, was incorrect. The speed-unlimited expansion of the ether into the void can sharply reduce the specified range of sizes of the radius of the Universe at any moment of its life, giving cosmology more realistic outlines.

Unsolved problem

All attempts to more accurately determine the structure of the ether were unsuccessful. We are talking about assessing the volumetric density of the ether. Available estimates of the average density of the Universe are 1.608×10 -26 kg/m 3 or 1.608×10 -29 g/cm 3 lead to unreal densities of the cosmic ether formed by electron+positron dipoles. Considering this circumstance, as well as the obvious contradiction that arises during the annihilation of an electron and a positron with co storing their masses in the ether dipole, let us put forward the following hypothesis - during annihilation, the masses of the electron and positron actually disappear with the release of the corresponding energy, but their charges are conserved, forming dipoles of the bound charge of the ether. This is possible, since the structure of elementary particles, which is formed, is shown above separate from each other by charge surfaces (plasmas) and mass nuclei. In addition, the charge difference between an electron and a positron is shown above, which, according to the law of conservation of charge, does not give any chance for their charge annihilation. The rule also holds true for the interaction of electrons and positively charged atomic nuclei. Electrons cannot “fall” onto the nucleus. This is a completely new paradigm for physics, which seems completely incredible, but saves simple matter and the theory of the ether from collapse. It is interesting because it reveals the secret of the essence of mass and electric charge. At the same time, agreement is found with the inflationary theory of the Big Bang, which is based on the existence of a physical vacuum without matter, that is, ether without mass. The logical conclusion follows - the birth of matter (mass) occurred through the conversion of part of the extremely dense electric charge of the ether into gravitating mass. Conversion processes also occur in the modern era in the form of the birth of matter in the nuclei of galaxies. All this suggests that the charge of the ether is organized into microclusters like mesons, which in turn form macroclusters that violate the homogeneity of the inflationary ether and, as a result of BV, led to the scattering of quasar nuclei, the formation of galactic nuclei and the generation of stars.

Particle-wave paradox

Since the beginning of the 20th century, a paradox arose in physics: a particle in one case behaved like a particle, in another - like a wave, forming the phenomena of interference and diffraction. He brought confusion to classical physics. It was incredible and mysterious. In 1924, De Broglie proposed a formula by which it was possible to determine the wavelength of any particle, where the numerator is Planck's constant, and the denominator is the momentum of the particle, formed by its mass and speed of motion. Physicists came to terms with obvious nonsense and since then, this concept remains a pillar of modern physics - any particle has not only mass and speed of its movement, but also a corresponding wavelength with the frequency of its vibration during movement.

The Unified Field Theory on the website page defines the main parameters of the structure of the physical vacuum - the ether. It is formed by dipoles of virtual electrons and positrons. The dipole arm is equal to r= 1.398826×10 –15 m, the limiting dipole deformation is dr= 1.020772×10 –17 m. Their ratio is 137.036.

Thus, Planck's constant is completely determined by all the basic structural elements of the ether and its parameters. From here we get that De Broglie’s formula is also 100% determined by the characteristics of the vacuum and the momentum of the particle. What was the paradox of empty space became obvious and natural in the medium of the ether. The particle has momentum, and transverse oscillations of the particle are formed in the medium when it moves at speed V. Without a medium, in empty space, the particle would not have wave properties. The wave-particle duality proves the existence of the structure of the vacuum - the ether. And the paradox naturally disappeared. Everything fell into place. Many people probably know the household experience - you can hang a light ball in the air stream from a vacuum cleaner. The ball not only hangs in the jet, but also undergoes transverse oscillations. This experiment gives an idea of ​​the formation of transverse vibrations of a particle when moving in a motionless ether.

Thus, the vibrations of particles in their movement are not their innate property, as is still believed, but a manifestation of the interaction of a particle with the ether. In fact, particle-wave dualism is direct and obvious evidence of the existence of the ether.

Moreover, these oscillations and movement of particles along a helical sinusoid are the so-called uncertainty of the trajectory of any particle according to Heisenberg. These are the stunning consequences that resulted from the rejection of the ether, which formed the basis of all modern physics.

Increase in mass or resistance of the ether?

It is well known that the triumph of Einstein's theory rests on several fundamental experiments. The deflection of light by the Sun, the growth of the mass of particles in accelerators when they reach speeds close to the speed of light, the growth of their lifetime with increasing speed of particles, the theoretical justification for the presence of black holes in the Universe, the red shift in the radiation of a source on a heavy space object.

The presented principles of the theory of the ether positively resolve such issues as the existence of black holes, the deflection of light rays by masses, and the above-mentioned red shift. All these phenomena in the ethereal theory are solved in a natural, natural way (natural physics of NF) as opposed to the artificial construction of relativistic physics (RF). If, within the framework of the ether theory, it is possible to show the reasons for the necessary increase in energy when accelerating particles to near light speeds, then another strong argument of the Russian Federation will disappear.

Let's look at the issue of electron motion with speed V in the structure of the photon ether. According to the position that an electron creates around itself a region of deformed structure by a certain amount. As the speed of electron movement increases and taking into account that the speed of “tracking” of the structure is limited by the speed of light according to Einstein’s theory, we will write the elastic force equation in a different form: (see above). It is clear that when the speed of the electron is close to the speed of light, the positive charge of the dipole remaining after the flight will not have time to return to its original state, and the front neutral charge will not have time to turn towards the electron with a positive charge and neutralize the braking effect of the one left behind. And when V = c the braking effect will be maximum. Let's take the momentum of the particle and divide it by the time of flight, we get the force of forward motion of the electron: . If this force is equal to the braking force from the photon ether, the electron will lose its energy of motion and stop. We obtain the following expression to describe this phenomenon: m/s, that is, at a speed slightly less than the speed of light, the electron will completely lose its momentum from the braking effect of the photon ether structure. So much for Einstein's increase in mass! There is no such phenomenon at all, but there is an interaction of particles with the medium of motion. In the case of neutral particles, the phenomenon will be described somewhat more complicated due to the fact that the particles receive their own polarization from the charged structure of the ether. Let's check the formula for the proton. We have m– classical proton radius. Let us calculate the dynamic deformation of the photon ether using the formula m(see above) and substitute all known quantities into the formula for calculating the maximum speed m/sec. We also found that complete deceleration of the proton occurs at its speed close to the speed of light. Here the question arises - what to do? – after all, the deformation of the photonic ether in the case of a proton exceeds the strength by almost 3 orders of magnitude! The answer must be sought in two directions, either in dynamics a large deformation does not lead to the destruction of the ether dipole, or it has already collapsed in statics and the proton is enveloped to a radius of 9.3036 × 10 –15 m charges of virtual electrons. The latter case is more preferable.

Let's summarize some results, presented for better viewing in table form:

#	Achievements of the Russian Federation	NF data
1	Light beam deflection and gravitational lenses	Determined by the dependence of the speed of light on the deformation of the structure of the ether by gravitating masses
2	Red shift in radiation from a source on a heavy object	Transition of a beam from the region of a heavy object at low speed of light to outer space at normal speed
3	Existence of black holes	The existence of black holes based on the zero speed of light and maximum acceleration of gravity, destroying the structure of extremely deformed ether
4	Increase in mass with increasing speed of an object	The braking effect of the ether structure, increasing to the limit as the particle speed increases to the speed of light
5	Slowing down of time with increasing speed of particles subject to natural decay and lengthening their “lifetime”	There is no answer to this problem yet, since in physics the “lifetime” of particles can be determined by the internal binding energy. How particles interact with the ether in a static state and in motion is still unclear
6	There is a wave-particle paradox	There is no wave-particle paradox
7	Gravity is explained by the geometry of the curvature of space in the presence of gravitating objects	Gravity and inertia are explained by the weak charge of the ether, consisting of massless dielectric dipoles

The listed points constitute common evidence of the justice of the Russian Federation. The table shows that the geometric interpretation of the observed effects in Nature can be replaced by more natural consequences of the etheric structure of Nature. A natural explanation of gravity within the framework of general relativity (RF) is not available at all. Almost 100% of the comparison table speaks in favor of SF.