Commodity structure of international trade. World trade: types, structure, development trends Geographical structure of modern international trade in services

Ministry of Agriculture VSOU VPO Chelyabinsk State Agricultural Engineering University

Faculty of Correspondence Education

Department of Economic Theory

Test

Subject:"Commodity and geographical structure of world trade."

Female students: Bondarenko Irina Alexandrovna

Specialty: Economics and Management in the Agro-Industrial Complex

Group No. 31

Teacher: Perchatkina

Irina Evgenievna

Chelyabinsk 2010

1. Introduction.

2.The essence of world trade. The concept of world trade.

3.Theoretical foundations of international trade.

4. Commodity and geographical structure of world trade.

5.Features of the dynamics of the commodity structure of international trade.

6.Conclusion

7. List of used literature

1. Introduction

International trade is a form of communication between producers of different countries, arising on the basis of the international division of labor, and expresses their mutual economic dependence. The following definition is often given in the literature: International trade is the process of buying and selling between buyers, sellers and intermediaries in different countries.

International trade includes the export and import of goods, the relationship between which is called the trade balance. The UN statistical reference books provide data on the volume and dynamics of world trade as the sum of the value of exports from all countries of the world.

The term “foreign trade” refers to the trade of a country with other countries, consisting of paid import (import) and paid export (export) of goods.

International trade is the paid total trade turnover between all countries of the world. However, the concept of “international trade” is also used in a narrower sense: for example, the total trade turnover of industrialized countries, the total trade turnover of developing countries, the total trade turnover of countries of a continent, region, for example, countries of Eastern Europe, etc.

National production differences are determined by different endowments of production factors - labor, land, capital, as well as different internal needs for certain goods. The effect that foreign trade has on the dynamics of national income growth, consumption and investment activity is characterized for each country by well-defined quantitative dependencies.

Also, world trade is divided into two branches, which can be called geographical and commodity structures. It should be noted that, like any other organizational areas, these structures are characterized by constant evolution.

2.The essence of world trade. The concept of world trade.

International trade is a form of communication between producers of different countries, arising on the basis of the international division of labor, and expresses their mutual economic dependence.

Structural changes occurring in the economies of countries under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution, specialization and cooperation of industrial production strengthen the interaction of national economies. This helps to enhance international trade. International trade, which mediates the movement of all intercountry commodity flows, is growing faster than production. According to research by the World Trade Organization, for every 10% increase in global production there is a 16% increase in global trade. This creates more favorable conditions for its development. When disruptions occur in trade, the development of production slows down.

The term “foreign trade” refers to the trade of a country with other countries, consisting of paid import (import) and paid export (export) of goods.

Diverse foreign trade activities are divided according to product specialization into: trade in finished products, trade in machinery and equipment, trade in raw materials and trade in services.

International trade is called the paid total trade turnover between all countries of the world. However, the concept of “international trade” is also used in a narrower sense. It means, for example, the total trade turnover of industrialized countries, the total trade turnover of developing countries, the total trade turnover of countries of a continent or region.

3.Theoretical foundations of international trade.

The centuries-old history of world trade is based on the very tangible benefits it brings to the countries participating in it. During this period, explanations of causes and consequences developed into specific theories. The general theory of international trade provides insight into what underlies these gains from foreign trade or what determines the direction of foreign trade flows.

Classical theory of international trade.

The foundations of the theory of international trade were formulated at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. outstanding English economists A. Smith and D. Ricardo.

A. Smith in his book “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations” (1776) concluded theory of absolute advantage. The main conclusion is that not only the sale, but also the purchase of goods on the foreign market can be profitable for the state. Thanks to the international division of labor, citrus fruits are always more profitable to grow in tropical countries rather than in England. Smith's merit was that he explained intercountry trade flows through the presence of natural and acquired advantages.

D. Ricardo in his work “Principles of Political Economy and Taxation” (1817) formulated a more general principle of mutually beneficial trade and international specialization

including the Smith model as a special case.

Ricardo opened law of comparative advantage, according to which each country specializes in the production of those goods for which its labor costs are comparatively lower, although in absolute terms they may sometimes be slightly higher than abroad. As a result, it is concluded that free trade leads to specialization in the production of each country, the development of the production of comparatively advantageous goods, an increase in output throughout the world, as well as an increase in consumption in each country.

Heckscher-Ohlin model.

At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. as a result of structural changes in international trade, the role of natural differences as a factor in the international division of labor has significantly decreased. Swedish economists E. Heckscher and B. Ohlin(in the 20-30s of the XX century) created a theory, explaining the reasons for international trade in manufactured products. According to the authors, different countries are endowed with labor, capital, land to varying degrees, as well as different needs for certain goods.

Concept of Samuelson and Stolper.

In the middle of the 20th century. (1948) American economists P. Samuelson and V. Stolper improved the Heckscher–Ohlin theory, imagining that in the case of homogeneity of factors of production, identity of technology, perfect competition and complete mobility of goods, international exchange equalizes the price of factors of production between countries. The authors base their concept on the Ricardian model with additions from Heckscher and Ohlin and view trade not just as a mutually beneficial exchange, but also as a means to reduce the gap in the level of development between countries.

Leontief's paradox.

In the mid-50s of the XX century. American economist of Russian origin V. Leontiev developed the theory of foreign trade in a work known as "Leontyev's paradox". Using the Heckscher-Ohlin theorem, he showed that the American economy in the postwar period specialized in those types of production that required relatively more labor than capital. This contradicted previously existing ideas about the US economy, which, due to an excess of capital, would have to export predominantly capital-intensive goods. By including in the analysis more than two factors of production, including scientific and technical progress, differences in types of labor (skilled and unskilled) and their differentiated payment in different countries, Leontiev explained the above-mentioned paradox and thereby contributed to the theory of comparative advantage .

Vernon and Kindelberg theory.

In the second half of the 60s of the XX century. distribution received "product life cycle" theory, developed by R. Vernon, as well as C. Kindelberg and L. Wales. Each new product goes through a cycle that includes the stages of introduction, expansion, maturity and aging, on the basis of which modern trade relations between countries in the exchange of finished products can be explained. According to the cycle, countries specialize in producing exports of the same product at different stages of maturity.

Michael Porter's theory of competitive advantage.

The theoretical explanations of the international exchange of goods discussed above show that traditional foreign trade theories are insufficient to explain the modern international exchange of goods. However, they are basic in the theoretical studies of Western scientists and explain the emergence and direction of international trade in goods by comparative advantages due to product differentiation and differences in the sets of factors of individual countries. A country exports goods for which it has a comparative cost advantage and imports goods for which it does not have a comparative cost advantage.

In the last two decades, the macroeconomic approach to analysis in theories of international trade has been supplemented by a microeconomic one, which is manifested in the significant interest of scientists in the development of various models of participation in international trade of individual firms and corporations. Most authors assign a decisive role to the implementation of the technological advantages of individual corporations in markets that are most receptive to innovation. The objects of international trade in this case are both technology embodied in high-tech goods and pure technology (in the form of licenses).

The most famous of them is theory of competitive advantage Michael Porter. It consistently conveys the idea that firms, not countries, compete in the international market, so it is very important to understand how a firm creates and maintains competitive advantages, and to understand the role of the country in this process. The competitiveness of a country in international exchange is determined by the influence and interrelation of the following four main components, called the “competitive diamond”: factor conditions (the presence of basic factors of production in the country); domestic demand conditions causing economies of scale; the presence of related and supporting industries (clusters); the company's strategy, its structure and place in intra-industry competition.

4. Commodity and geographical structure of world trade

International trade (IT) is the sphere of commodity-money relations, which represents the totality of foreign trade of all countries of the world.

Foreign trade is the exchange of goods and services between state-registered national economies. The term "foreign trade" is applicable only to a single country.

International or foreign trade is characterized by three important characteristics: total volume (trade turnover), product and geographical structure.

The total volume of international trade (trade turnover) is divided into value and physical volume. The value volume, which is calculated for a certain period of time in current prices of the corresponding years using current exchange rates. There are nominal and real value volumes of international trade. Nominal - usually expressed in US dollars at current prices and is therefore highly dependent on the movement of the exchange rate between the dollar and other currencies. Real - represents nominal volume converted into constant prices using a deflator.

Physical volume is calculated in constant prices and allows making the necessary comparisons and determining the real dynamics of international trade.

These figures are calculated by all countries in their national currencies and converted to US dollars for international comparison purposes.

The product structure represents the ratio of product groups in world exports (there are more than 20 million types of manufactured products for industrial and consumer purposes, a huge number of intermediate products and more than 600 types of services)

Geographic structure represents the distribution of trade flows between individual countries and their groups, distinguished either by territorial or organizational characteristics.

Territorial geographic structure is data on international trade of countries belonging to one part of the world or to one group.

Since the second half of the 20th century, the uneven dynamics of foreign trade have become noticeably evident, this has affected the balance of power between countries in the world market (industrialized countries - 70-75% of international trade, developing - 20%, former socialist countries - 10%).

Geographical configuration of international trade (less than 70% of exports):

Industrialized countries - less than 70% of exports, 75% of imports (USA, EU, Japan less than 60% of exports and imports; G7 50% of world trade turnover).

Top ten world exporters: China, USA, Germany, Japan, France, UK, Italy, Canada, Netherlands, India.

Three-quarters of industrialized countries' exports go to other developed countries. At the same time, 4/5 of exports are non-food products. Since the exports of industrialized countries are dominated by sophisticated technology, most developing countries are of comparatively less interest to them as markets for such products. Complex technology is often not needed by developing countries because it does not fit into the existing production cycle. Sometimes they simply cannot afford it.

Exporters from Asia are strengthening their position on the world market mainly at the expense of Western European countries. This happens both in traditional markets for developing countries (textiles, consumer goods), and in markets for complex products, including capital goods.

The organizational geographical structure is data on international trade between countries belonging to individual integration and other trade and political groupings, or allocated to a certain group according to certain criteria (for example, OPEC oil exporting countries).

The subjects of international trade are: countries of the world; TNC; regional integration groups.

Objects of international trade can be products of human labor - goods and services.

Depending on the object of international trade, there are two forms:

1. International trade in goods (ITT) is a form of communication between commodity producers of different countries, arising on the basis of the international division of labor and expressing their mutual economic dependence;

2. International trade in services (ITS) is a specific form of world economic relations for the exchange of services between sellers and buyers of different countries.

International trade in goods is the first and most developed form of international economic relations. Its stable and sustainable growth was influenced by the following factors:

Development of MRI and internationalization of production;

Scientific and technological revolution, promoting the renewal of fixed capital, the creation of new sectors of the economy, accelerating the reconstruction of old ones;

Active activity of TNCs in the global market;

Liberalization of international trade through activities carried out by GATT/WTO;

Development of trade and economic integration processes: elimination of regional barriers, formation of common markets, free trade zones.

Factors operating in the sphere of production have a decisive influence on the development of international trade: structural changes and cyclical fluctuations of the world economy. The growth of the export quota, indicating the increasing involvement of countries in the world economy, because The export quota shows what share of all manufactured products is sold on the world market. In some countries this figure exceeds the global one (17%) - for example, Germany, France, Great Britain. In conditions of increasing internationalization of economic life, there is a tendency towards an increase in import quotas, which indicates the growing influence on national economies of processes occurring in the world market.

Significant changes in the geographical structure of international trade under the influence of economic and political changes in the world in the 90s. The leading role still belongs to industrialized countries.

Within the group of developing countries there is also a pronounced unevenness in the degree of participation in international trade in goods. The share of international trade in goods from the countries of the Middle East is decreasing, which is explained by the instability of oil prices and the aggravation of contradictions between OPEC countries. The foreign trade situation of many African countries included in the group of least developed countries is unstable. South Africa provides 1/3 of African exports. The situation in Latin American countries is also not stable enough, because Their raw material export orientation remains the same (2/3 of their export income comes from raw materials). The increase in the share of Asian countries in international trade was ensured by high rates of economic growth (an average of 6% per year) and the reorientation of its exports to finished products (2/3 of the value of exports). Thus, the increase in the overall share of developing countries in international trade in goods is ensured by the NIS of Southeast Asia and China.

Expanding trade within developing countries, which is now growing faster than between industrialized countries. Trade turnover is increasing between developing countries and industrialized countries, as well as between industrialized countries and countries with economies in transition. The countries of Southeast Asia have become the largest trading partners of the USA, Japan, and Western Europe. EU countries are increasing trade turnover with Eastern European countries.

5. Features of the dynamics of the commodity structure of international trade

In recent years, the world market has seen a growing trend in the share of global exports of textile products and finished products of the manufacturing industry to 77%, especially science-based goods.

The main trend at the current stage of development of international trade in goods is an increase in the share of manufacturing products (3/4 of world exports) and a reduction in the share of raw materials. In addition, the dynamics of international trade in goods has the following features:

Almost 40% of the value of world exports comes from technically complex, differentiated products - machinery and transport equipment. The increase in exports of mechanical engineering products is accompanied by a simultaneous increase in trade in components, assemblies, parts, and semi-finished products. In connection with the increase in world exports of machinery and equipment (the leaders here are industrialized countries), the exchange of relevant services has also sharply increased: scientific, technical, production, commercial, financial and credit nature. Active trade in machinery and equipment has given rise to a number of new services, such as engineering, leasing, consulting, information and computing services.

The role of the chemical industry has increased.

As a result, the trend towards increasing knowledge-intensive, technically complex products in international trade is strengthening. The volume of mineral fuel exports over the past 10 years has decreased by more than 2.5 times, which is largely explained by political instability in the region of its main production (the Middle East) and significant fluctuations in world prices.

An important trend is the very dynamic growth of the global metallurgical market. Features of this market include a relative, but quite noticeable, decrease in the share of traditional exporters - Japan and EU countries. The positions of the Republic of Korea and Brazil have noticeably strengthened. The United States and China continue to be the largest net importers.

Tightening environmental protection requirements aimed at limiting the emission of gases into the atmosphere, and, above all, carbon dioxide, to prevent global climate change, in the future will have a certain impact on reducing coal consumption and, to some extent, then the degree of oil as the most environmentally polluting energy resource. At the same time, the role of renewable energy sources and natural gas will be increased.

The share of food products in world exports is decreasing slightly but steadily, which indicates the countries’ desire for food self-sufficiency.

The main volume of trade in finished products falls on industrialized countries, their share in the export of machinery and transport equipment is almost 77%, in imports - 66%. Developing countries account for 21.8% of world exports of machinery and transport equipment and 30.9% of world imports (including 9% of exports provided by the first wave NIS Southeast Asia). The share of countries with transition economies is 1.4% and 3.1%, respectively. Thus, the most knowledge-intensive and high-tech products circulate between industrialized countries, but at the present stage, developing countries pose serious competition to industrialized countries.

Industrialized countries also occupy leading positions in global exports of chemical products - 80.5%. Developing countries account for 15.9%, countries with economies in transition - 3.6%. At the same time, industrialized countries are also the main importers of chemical goods - 64.6%. Developing countries import 30.5%.

As the development of productive forces progresses, the role of raw materials in material production decreases (for example, the cost of a car in the 20s consisted of 60% of the cost of raw materials and energy, the cost of a modern semiconductor microchip - less than 2%).

As a result, the share of these positions in international trade is decreasing. Industrialized countries account for 60.5% of the value of world exports of raw materials, developing countries - 33.4%, countries with economies in transition - 6.1%. In the import of raw materials, industrialized countries account for 60.5%, developing countries - 32.1%, countries with economies in transition - 5.1%. The share of industrialized countries in mineral fuel exports is 32.1%, developing countries - 5.3%, countries with economies in transition - 11.6%. It is characteristic that since the beginning of the 90s. The share of industrialized countries as fuel exporters increased due to the emergence of Great Britain, the Netherlands, Norway and Canada as the largest oil exporters. In imports, industrialized countries consume 61.7% of fuel, developing countries - 25.5%, countries with economies in transition - 12.8%. Most of the fuel produced in industrialized countries is supplied to other industrialized countries. But their dependence on supplies from developing countries is no less high (53%). Among the most important structural changes in international trade in goods, one should also note a decrease in the share of food, which is associated with the relatively slow growth of agricultural production compared to industrial production and the fall in the share of the agricultural sector in GDP in all groups of countries. A characteristic feature of food trade is the strengthening of the positions of industrialized countries and the growing food dependence of developing countries on the leading centers of the world economy. Due to the increase in self-sufficiency in food, the share of industrialized countries in food imports is decreasing (from 78.1% in 1960 to 68.8% in 2005).

Moreover, the largest reduction is observed in EU countries. The share of developing countries in food exports is 29.6%, in imports - 24.8%, and the share of countries with economies in transition is 3.1% and 5.1, respectively. In terms of food trade directions: exchange between industrialized countries predominates - 74.1% of exports, 59.1% comes from developing countries to industrialized countries. Accordingly, 20% of the value of food is exported from industrialized countries to developing countries, and 36.6% between developing countries. This pattern is mainly due to the higher purchasing power of the population of industrialized countries.

International trade in textiles and clothing is developing very unevenly. In this market, there is a developing trend towards convergence of the positions of industrialized countries and developing countries (the share of industrialized countries is 49.3%, developing countries - 48.3%). A feature of the textile market is its regionalization: 69.2% of its exports from industrialized countries were sent to other industrialized countries and also 68.8% of exports from developing countries went to other developing countries. In the global clothing market, the leading positions are occupied by developing countries, which account for 60% of world exports, industrialized countries account for 35.4%, and countries with economies in transition account for 4.6%. Industrialized countries predominate in global clothing imports - 79%, developing countries account for 16.8%, countries with economies in transition - 4.2%. Moreover, the flow of goods on the world clothing market is formed by the fact that 80.2% of clothing exported from industrialized countries comes to industrialized countries, and 78% exported from developing countries.

Thus, the world market of goods at the present stage is significantly diversified, and the product range of foreign trade turnover is extremely wide, which is associated with the deepening of MRI and a huge variety of needs for industrial and consumer goods.

Based on the above, we can identify trends characteristic of the development of international trade in goods and international trade in services at the present stage. New trends are associated, first of all, with scientific and technical progress, changes in the object of trade, subjects of commodity circulation and its organizational and economic forms. Among them:

Rapid updating of the product range of international trade, which is reflected in the appearance on world markets of a large number of fundamentally new goods, mainly products of new industries, the sphere of high technology;

Increased exchange of units, parts, components;

Relative decline in the importance of trade in raw materials and fuels;

The priority presence of TNCs, for which the intra-company transfer of equipment, components, as well as information, technology, finance acts in the form of international sale of goods and services;

Refusal of personal contact between seller and buyer in the service sector due to the emergence of new forms and means of satellite communications and video equipment;

Increasing the degree of mobility of producers and consumers of services by reducing the share of transport costs. One of the most important characteristics that distinguishes the world market from the national market is the functioning of a unique price system on it. The peculiarities of the pricing process in the world market are related to the fact that participants in international trade face more competitors in the market than in the domestic market, so they must constantly work in the mode of comparing their production costs not only with domestic market prices, but also with world ones. At the same time, world prices are based on national prices and act as their modification.

The world market is characterized by a plurality of prices, which is explained by the influence of various commercial, trade and political factors.

Multiple prices - the presence of a number of prices for the same product or goods of the same quality in the same sphere of circulation on the same transport base (for example, prices under clearing agreements, prices under government assistance programs...). Thus, world prices are one of the subspecies of this set.

World prices are the prices at which large export-import operations are carried out, which fairly fully characterize the state of international trade in a specific product.

World prices differ from domestic prices in the following ways:

Regularity, i.e. internal transaction prices are random, episodic in nature, which is not typical for world prices;

Separation of a commercial nature, i.e. barter transactions, supplies of goods within the framework of state aid, etc. are excluded, since these transactions provide for special relationships between partners. Prices under these conditions may deviate significantly in one direction or another from the price level of separate transactions;

Openness of the trade and political regime, i.e. prices within closed economic groups cannot serve as world prices, because these prices, due to state subsidies for national producers, may be higher than the prices of other large suppliers of these products to the world market;

Free convertibility of payment currency.

There are two types of prices used in international trade:

Estimated prices are individually determined by exporting firms for specific types of industrial goods;

Published prices are prices reported in special and proprietary information sources.

These include:

Reference prices are the prices of goods in domestic wholesale and foreign trade of industrialized countries. They are most widely used in international trade and represent the so-called basic prices, i.e. prices of goods of a certain quantity and quality in a particular predetermined geographical location. Basic prices are set in accordance with the basic terms of delivery, which determine whether delivery costs are included in the price of the goods or not. The basic terms of delivery are set out in the International Rules for the Interpretation of Trade Terms (Incoterms 2000), developed by the International Chamber of Commerce;

Exchange quotes - reflect the real prices of transactions on the exchange;

Auction prices;

Bidding prices;

Actual transaction prices;

Offer prices of large companies

Considering that in the modern world economy, TNCs are the main subjects and control 2/3 of international trade, intra-company trade of TNCs is carried out at a special category of world prices - transfer prices, which are usually 30% lower than world prices. Transfer prices are a commercial secret, are largely artificial in nature and are formed not under the influence of supply and demand, but based on internal company policy.

World prices change under the influence of market conditions. At the same time, changes in the cost proportions of commodity exchange have a significant impact on the development of international trade, its commodity structure and results. A characteristic feature of the structure of world prices is the multidirectional movement of prices for industrial goods, on the one hand, and for raw materials, fuel and food products, on the other. At the same time, the methods for determining world prices for various products are also different:

Commodity prices are defined as the export prices of the main suppliers of a particular product and the import prices at the most important import centers for that product

Prices for manufacturing products are determined as export prices of large manufacturing companies and exporters of these products.

In general, both prices in the world economy tend to rise, but this does not happen all the time and prices for different groups of goods rise differently.

Prices for industrial goods have slight fluctuations in both directions and often rise even during periods of cyclical downturns in production. Identification of trends in the dynamics of world commodity prices is carried out by the UN Bureau of Statistics, which calculates indices of world commodity prices.

World commodity price indices are more differentiated (energy resources, including oil, coal; mineral raw materials, including iron ore, aluminum; agricultural food and non-food products, including wheat, coffee, wool etc.)

Conclusion

The traditional and most developed form of international economic relations is foreign trade. Trade accounts for about 80 percent of the total current volume of international economic relations. Not a single country in the world has managed to create an economy without participating in international trade. In modern conditions, the country’s active participation in world trade is associated with significant advantages: it allows you to more efficiently use the resources available in the country, join the world’s achievements of science and technology, carry out structural restructuring of your economy in a shorter time, and also satisfy needs more fully and diversified population.

International trade is a consequence of the international division of labor and international specialization. This secures serious development prospects for it. In addition, global trade contributes to deepening the internationalization of production, international economic integration and globalization. Based on this, studying its current situation and considering the prospects for its development is necessary for building a foreign economic strategy at both the macro and micro levels. This means that not only states must have their own program of behavior in the international market of goods and services, but also enterprises and organizations operating in this market must have strategic concepts of functioning and behavior in changing conditions.

The dynamics of international trade development are characterized by rapid growth in trade volumes in the last decade. This is due to both the growth of the economic and scientific and technical potential of most states. At the same time, it is important to note the trend according to which the share of trade in finished products is growing in relation to the share of trade in raw materials. The volume of trade in semi-finished products is also increasing. In the growing variety of forms of international trade, intra-corporate trade of TNCs is beginning to occupy a significant position. This is explained, first of all, by the strengthening of the position of TNCs themselves at the international level, as well as by the naturally favorable position of related divisions located in different countries.

Moreover, as can be seen from this work, there is a rather sharp change in the geographical and commodity structure of world trade, which was facilitated by many factors.

Using the example of the CIS, the evolution of the geographical and commodity structures of world trade was examined.

Thus, all tasks are completed and the goal is achieved.

List of used literature

1. Aldonin, E.F. World economy / E.F. Aldonin. - M.: Yurist, 2006. - 322 p.

2. Bagiev, L. Yu. World economy: a textbook for universities / L. Yu. Bagiev. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2007. - 297 p.

3. Vinnik, Ya. M. Change in the structure of international trade / Ya.M. Vinnik // International trade. - 2008. - No. 5. - P. 19 - 22.

4. Vykhin, O.S. World economy / O.S. Vykhin. - M.: Finance and Statistics, 2007. - 379 p.

5. Garkalina, I.N. World economy / I.N. Garkalina. - M.: Unity, 2006. - 247 p.

6. Gippius, Yu.B. World economy / Yu. B. Gippius. - M.: Higher School, 2007. - 509 p.

7. Gurina, L.F. Geographical and commodity structure of trade in the CIS countries / L.F. Gurina // Russian Economic Journal. - 2007. - No. 2. - P. 37 - 39.

8. Kaufman, M. I. The evolution of international trade at the turn of the 20th - 21st centuries. / M.I. Kaufman // World Economy. - 2006. - No. 7. - P. 24 - 27.

9. Minasyan, A. R. Problems of international trade / A. R. Minasyan // Foreign economic activity. - 2007. - No. 4. - P. 31 - 33.

10. Naumov, A.I. World economy / A.I. Naumov. - M.: Gardarika, 2006. - 266 p.

11. Osipova, O. N. Structure and shifts in international trade / O. N. Osipova // Foreign economic activity. - 2007. - No. 1. - P. 26 - 28.

12. Parshin, A.G. World economy: textbook for universities / A.G. Parshin. - M.: Infra-M, 2007. - 406 p.

13. Titova, V.A. World economy / V.A. Titova. - M.: Higher School, 2008. - 273 p.

14. Tretyakov, R. A. Forms of changes in international trade / R. A. Tretyakov // World Economy. - 2009. - No. 9. - P. 49 - 51.

15. Trofimov, I.M. New basis for regional trade of the CIS countries / I.M. Trofimov // Questions of Economics. - 2006. - No. 7. - P. 31 - 35.

There are several definitions of international trade. But two of them reflect the essence of this concept best:

• In a broad sense, MT is a system of international relations in the exchange of goods and services, as well as raw materials and capital, consisting in the conduct of foreign trade operations by one country with other states (import and export) and regulated by accepted international norms.
• In a narrow sense, this is the total trade turnover of all world states or only a part of countries united on a certain basis.

Obviously, without MT, countries would be limited to consuming those goods and services that are produced exclusively within their own borders. Therefore, participation in global trade brings the following “advantages” to states:

• through export earnings, the country accumulates capital, which can then be used for the industrial development of the domestic market;
• an increase in export supplies entails the need to create new jobs for workers, which leads to greater employment;
• international competition leads to progress, i.e. causes the need to improve production, equipment, technologies;

Each individual state, as a rule, has its own specialization. Thus, in certain countries agricultural production is particularly developed, in others - mechanical engineering, in others - the food industry. Therefore, MT makes it possible not to create a surplus of produced domestic goods, but to exchange them (or money from their sale) for other necessary products from importing countries.

MT forms

Trade and financial relations between states are in constant dynamics. Therefore, in addition to ordinary trade operations, when the moments of purchase and payment for goods coincide, modern forms of MT also appear:

• tenders (bidding) are, in fact, international competitions to attract foreign companies to carry out production work, provide engineering services, train employees of enterprises, as well as tenders for the purchase of equipment, etc.
• leasing - when production equipment is leased to users in other countries for a long-term lease;
• exchange trading - trade transactions are concluded between countries on commodity exchanges;
• countertrade - when in international trade transactions, instead of paying in money, products of the purchasing state must be supplied;
• licensed trade - sale to countries of licenses to use trademarks, inventions, industrial innovations;
• auction trade is a method of selling goods with individual valuable properties in the form of public auction, which is preceded by a preliminary inspection.

MT regulation

Transport regulation can be divided into state (tariff and non-tariff) and regulation through international agreements.

Tariff methods are essentially the application of duties levied on the movement of goods across borders. They are established in order to limit imports and, therefore, reduce competition from foreign producers. Export duties are not used very often. Non-tariff methods, for example, include quotas or licensing.

International agreements and regulatory organizations such as the GAAT and the WTO are of particular importance for MT. They define the fundamental principles and rules of international trade that each participating country must adhere to.

Its competitiveness.

Theories of international trade.

International trade in services.

The essence and features of international trade.

World Trade – moving goods and materials abroad in exchange for cash flows.

Modern features of international trade:

– a sharp increase in the volume of international trade in goods and services;

– a change in the commodity structure of world exports towards an increase in the exchange of high-tech products and services;

– transformation from simple sales of a certain surplus of products on the foreign market into pre-agreed supplies of goods between cooperating enterprises of different countries;

– a tendency towards increasing import dependence of a number of countries;

– regulation (liberalization) of international trade through GATT – WTO measures;

– liberalization of international trade, the transition of many countries to a regime that includes the abolition of quantitative restrictions on imports and a significant reduction in customs duties – the formation of “free economic zones”;

– active activity of transnational corporations in the global market;

-developing countries mainly remain suppliers of raw materials, food and relatively simple finished products to the world market. The desire of developing countries to diversify their exports through industrial goods is often met with some form of resistance from industrialized countries;

– individual developing countries, primarily NICs (newly industrialized countries: Singapore, Thailand, the Republic of Korea, Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan), managed to achieve significant changes in the restructuring of their exports, increasing the share of finished products, industrial products, including machinery and equipment;

– a very noticeable trend has been the increase in intra-industry trade volumes between developed countries (between automobile, aviation, electronics, steel and other companies);

–increasing role of the Asia-Pacific region in the system of international economic relations, including in the field of international trade. Among the promising leaders of world trade are China and India;

– after the collapse of the socialist bloc, trade between the EU and the countries of the former socialist bloc increased sharply.

Sectoral structure of world trade

1. The most dynamic and rapidly developing sector of world trade is trade in manufacturing products, especially knowledge-intensive goods.

2. The role of trade in machinery and equipment has increased significantly. The export of electrical and electronic equipment is growing at the fastest pace.

3. One of the fastest growing areas of international trade is trade in chemical products.

4. An important trend of the 90s is the very dynamic growth of the global metallurgical market. Features of this market include a relative, but quite noticeable decline in the share of traditional exporters - Japan and EU countries. The positions of the Republic of Korea and Brazil have noticeably strengthened. The United States and China continue to be the largest net importers.

5. In general, the development of the world economy is largely determined by the growth of trade in services - transport, financial, tourism.

6. If in the first half of the century 2/3 of world trade turnover was accounted for by food, raw materials and fuel, then by the end of the century they accounted for only 1/4. The share of trade in manufacturing products increased from 1/3 to 3/4. And finally, more than 1/3 of all world trade by the end of the 90s was trade in machinery and equipment.

Competitiveness of Russian economic sectors:

First group– competitive resource industries according to world standards (oil, gas, forestry, diamond industries, partly energy, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy). These industries employ 4% of all people employed in the economy and 17% in industry. They create about half of the added value in the industry and approximately 15% of GDP, if calculated in domestic prices (in world prices - significantly more). Russia ranks first in exports of natural gas, rough diamonds, aluminum, nickel and nitrogen fertilizers; third and fourth places in the export of oil, petroleum products, electricity, potash fertilizers and rolled ferrous metals.

Second group– branches of the manufacturing industry that have great scientific and technical potential, capable of producing products that are competitive not only in the domestic market, but also (under certain conditions) in the foreign market. These include the aerospace, nuclear industries, partly power engineering, heavy machine tools, biotechnology, forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industries, as well as the military industry. This group of industries needs protectionist government policy to maintain competitiveness in the domestic market.

While Russia firmly holds second place in the conventional arms market, providing about 13% of global needs, Russia’s position in the markets for civilian finished products and high-tech products is extremely weak. Today, Russia exports 5 times less high-tech products than Thailand, 8 times less than Mexico, 10 times less than China, and 14 times less than Malaysia and South Korea.

Third group- these are industries that are unlikely to be competitive in the foreign market, but are able to satisfy a significant part of the demand in the domestic market: automotive industry, agricultural engineering, light and food industries, production of building materials. All these industries taken together account for about 18% of industrial output, but almost none of their products are exported.

The group of non-competitive industries under consideration includes agriculture (it accounts for about 15% of those employed in the national economy, but only 7% of GDP). In relation to this group of industries, it is probably necessary, firstly, to actively use protective import tariffs and other legal protectionist measures (while maintaining reasonable competition) and, secondly, to fully encourage domestic demand for their products (through a system of public procurement, leasing, etc.).

In international trade in services, Russia is also focusing on traditional and low-tech niches: tourism and transport services. In the second half of the 90s, the two indicated positions accounted for 75 to 80% of all Russian exports of services

Related information.

International trade is the area of ​​exchange of goods and services between sellers and buyers of different countries. In the process of international trade, two goods flows arise:

1 export - export and sale of goods abroad.

2 import – import and purchase of goods from abroad.

The difference between the valuations of exports and imports forms the trade balance, and their sum is foreign trade turnover. The objects of international trade are only goods and services.

International trade structure:

International trade in goods

A) trade in basic goods (oil, gas, agricultural products, forest resources)

B) trade in finished goods (trade in low-tech goods - metals; trade in medium-tech goods - machine tools, plastic products; trade in high-tech goods - aerospace technology, electronics, pharmaceuticals)

International trade in services.

Features of international trade at the present stage:

1. develops dynamically under the influence of scientific and technological progress;

2. structural changes are taking place in international trade towards an increase in knowledge-intensive products and services;

3. formation of large trading blocs.

Types of world trade:

Wholesale;

Trading on commodity exchanges;

Trading on stock exchanges;

International fairs;

Trading on foreign exchange markets.

The development of modern MT occurs under the influence of general processes occurring in the global economy. The global market is characterized by trends. Related to the further internationalization of the world economy and its globalization. The first is confirmed by the increase in the elasticity coefficient of world trade turnover, and the second by the increase in export and import quotas for most countries. Openness, reciprocity of economies, and integration are becoming key concepts for the global economy and global trade. This happened largely under the influence of TNCs, which truly became centers of coordination and engines of global exchange of goods and services. The consequence of this process is the barterization of international trade and the growth of other types of countertrade transactions and the growth of other types of transactions, which already occupy up to 30% of all international trade. The development of economic and social infrastructure, the presence of a competent bureaucracy, a strong educational system, sustainable policies, etc. come to the fore. Significant changes are taking place in the commodity structure of the food supply: the share of finished goods has increased and the share of food and raw materials has decreased. Modern transport industry is characterized by a tendency towards the development of trade in services, especially business services (engineering, consulting, leasing, factoring, etc.)

International trade (IT) - this is the sphere of commodity-money relations, which represents the totality of foreign trade of all countries of the world.

International trade - is the exchange of goods and services between state-registered national economies. The term "foreign trade" is applicable only to a single country.

International (foreign) trade is characterized by three important points: total volume (trade turnover), commodity and geographical structure.

The total volume of international trade (trade turnover) is divided into:

1) value volume , which is calculated for a certain period of time in current prices of the corresponding years using current exchange rates;

There are:

• 1.1. Nominal - usually expressed in US dollars at current prices and is therefore highly dependent on movements in the exchange rate between the dollar and other currencies;
• 1.2. Real - represents nominal volume converted to constant prices using a deflator.
• 2) physical volume , which is calculated in constant prices and allows making the necessary comparisons and determining the real dynamics of international trade.

These figures are calculated by all countries in their national currencies and converted to US dollars for international comparison purposes.

Commodity structure represents the ratio of product groups in world exports (there are more than 20 million types of manufactured products for industrial and consumer purposes, a huge number of intermediate products and more than 600 types of services).

The product structure is characterized by:

• 1. A decrease in the share of raw materials and mineral fuels (late 90s 40%, and in the 2000s - 12%. Export of raw materials - to industrial countries - 60.5%, developing countries - 33.4%, countries with transition economy - 6.1%.Developed countries are both importers and exporters of raw materials in the world).
• 2. Diversification of the commodity flow, i.e. wide range of manufactured goods. (Germany - 180 positions; USA, Great Britain, Germany - 175 positions; Japan - less than 160 positions).
• 3. High share of finished products - (80% of trade in the world, 40% of mechanical and technical products of which: developed countries: exports - 77%, imports - 70%; developing countries: exports - 22%, imports - 28% ).
• 4. Decrease in the share of food (agricultural sector): large food exporters are developed countries, more than 60%. - increasing the share of trade in textiles and clothing (developing countries (exports): textiles - 48.3%, clothing - 60%; developed countries (exports): textiles - 49.3%, clothing - 35.4%).
• 5. The “Chinese factor” in international trade is increasing, the trade and economic potential of India is growing rapidly, and the countries of Latin America (Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, Chile) are becoming more significant.

Geographical structure represents the distribution of trade flows between individual countries and their groups, distinguished either by territorial or organizational characteristics. .

Territorial geographical structure - this is data on international trade of countries belonging to one part of the world, or to one group.

Since the second half of the 20th century, the uneven dynamics of foreign trade have become noticeably evident, this has affected the balance of power between countries in the world market (industrialized countries - 70-75% of international trade, developing - 20%, former socialist countries - 10%).

Organizational geographical structure - this is data on international trade between countries belonging to individual integration and other trade and political groupings, or allocated to a certain group according to certain criteria (for example, OPEC oil exporting countries). .

Subjects of international trade speakers: countries of the world; TNC; regional integration groups.

Objects of international trade may be products of human labor - goods and services.

Depending on the object of international trade, there are two forms:

• 1. International trade in goods (ITT) is a form of communication between commodity producers of different countries, arising on the basis of the international division of labor and expressing their mutual economic dependence;
• 2. International trade in services (ITS) is a specific form of world economic relations for the exchange of services between sellers and buyers of different countries.

International trade in goods is the first and most developed form of international economic relations. Its stable and sustainable growth was influenced by the following factors:

• - development of MRI and internationalization of production;
• - Scientific and technological revolution, promoting the renewal of fixed capital, the creation of new sectors of the economy, accelerating the reconstruction of old ones;
• - active activity of TNCs in the world market;
• - liberalization of international trade through activities carried out by GATT/WTO;
• - development of trade and economic integration processes: elimination of regional barriers, formation of common markets, free trade zones.

Factors operating in the sphere of production have a decisive influence on the development of international trade: structural changes and cyclical fluctuations of the world economy.

The growth of the export quota, indicating the increasing involvement of countries in the world economy, because The export quota shows what share of all manufactured products is sold on the world market. In some countries this figure exceeds the global one (17%) - for example, Germany, France, Great Britain. In conditions of increasing internationalization of economic life, there is a tendency towards an increase in import quotas, which indicates the growing influence on national economies of processes occurring in the world market.