The influence of the hereditary environment on human development. The influence of heredity on the development of the child's body. Child development: the influence of heredity

05.11.2022

Factors of mental development that especially influence the development of a child’s personality are: heredity, upbringing, environment, training, deprivation, activity and play. They act in combination, and at different age periods the degree of significance of any of them changes. These factors can have both a beneficial and negative impact on the formation of personality. And their ability to understand the actions and actions of their children depends on how much parents have knowledge about them. This knowledge makes it possible not only to better understand your child, but also to help him solve any problems that will periodically arise as his personality develops. Here we will look at two of these factors, namely heredity and environment.

Heredity

The ability of a living organism to respond in a certain way to living conditions and the metabolism characteristic of this organism, transmitted from generation to generation, is called heredity. In turn, genes are the carriers of any hereditary information.

Parents pass on to their children hereditary generic characteristics, such as skin color, eyes, hair, physique, facial features, temperament, the makings of abilities and inclinations, and a predisposition to certain pathologies. In a genotype, the expression of a particular trait may have different “limits”. Let's take, for example, such an inherited trait as intelligence. It is known that genes provide 50-70% of the existing diversity among people in the degree of this trait. And the rest depends on the influence of other factors, or rather, on their combination.

A child with a high degree of probability may receive a tendency towards bad behavior from his parents. However, a supportive environment helps reduce this innate ability, significantly reducing this risk. The development of certain mental illnesses in a person also directly depends on genetic factors.

It should be remembered that the child also inherits inclinations that are determined by the morphological and functional features of the structure of the brain, sensory organs and motor organs. In other words, inclinations are the natural prerequisites for the development of certain abilities.

Environment

Parents should pay great attention to the manifestation of certain inclinations in a child from early childhood in order to help him develop abilities that correspond to the identified inclinations. It is important to create conditions for the development of certain abilities in a timely manner so that the child can achieve high results and development proceeds at a rapid pace.

For example, from early childhood a child tends to enthusiastically build houses, turrets or entire cities from cubes or any available means. Parents should not just buy construction sets, but try to find a development club or center where specialists will help the child develop such abilities, based on which he can become a good architect or designer.

Heredity plays a huge role in the formation and development of personality, but this role is not unlimited. The extent to which certain genes will manifest depends on many external factors that parents can keep under their control.

The human environment should be considered the entire complex of interacting biological, environmental, anthropogenic, mental and social factors, which differ very significantly in different geographical and economic regions.

A favorable social environment ensures more complete and harmonious development of the individual. A child at an early age is greatly influenced by his family, its cultural and moral values, and the attitude of his relatives and friends towards him. As we grow older, factors such as school, art, culture, media, politics and social order come into play. Each of them and all together have an impact on each person, which can contribute to the development of his abilities, or can significantly slow him down.

Education occupies a special, very significant place among social factors, since it deals with the formation of specific personal qualities and the development of abilities. It is capable of influencing the natural (hereditary) qualities of the individual, filling them with new content and adapting them to existing social conditions.

That is why the home environment has a huge impact on the development of the child. Here the needs, interests, values and views of a growing person are determined, the necessary conditions are created for the development of his abilities, moral, ethical and social personal qualities are laid. And such negative manifestations as ignorance, rudeness, scandals can significantly slow down the development of personality.

Thus, favorable conditions can significantly affect the mental development of a child, relegating heredity to the background.

Determining the sources of individual mental variations is the main problem of differential psychology. Individual differences are generated by numerous and complex interactions between heredity and environment. Heredity ensures the stability of the existence of a biological species, the environment ensures its variability and the ability to adapt to general living conditions. Hereditary characteristics determine the genes that are passed on by the parents of the embryo during fertilization. Chemical imbalance or incompleteness of genes causes physical abnormalities or mental pathologies. Even under normal conditions, heredity allows for a wide range of behavioral variations; it is a consequence of the summation of reaction norms at different levels - biochemical, physiological, psychological, and the final result depends on the influence of the environment.

So, a person is influenced by heredity and environment, she is also characterized by social inheritance - adherence to cultural patterns, transmission of accentuation, for example schizoid, from mother to child through upbringing, the formation of family scenarios, which animals are deprived of.

Theories about the influence of environment and heredity

Taking into account the preferences of biological or environmental (socio-cultural) determination, researchers identify several groups of theories:

1. biogenetic theories are based on the position that the formation of individuality is determined by congenital and genetic inclinations. Genetic makings are determined by the totality of genes of male and female germ cells - the genotype, which forms an integral, coordinated and efficiently working system, which is constantly being improved in the process of evolution. All signs of the organism are under the control of the genotype - morphological, biochemical, physiological, up to the parameters of higher nervous activity. Congenital inclinations determined by the genotype in relation to the quality of intrauterine development. Therefore, in medical genetics, concepts such as genetic and congenital pathology are clearly distinguished. For example, some types of mental retardation may be a consequence of the harmful effects of the environment on the fetus through the mother's body (from infectious diseases to the mother's unhealthy lifestyle). Development is a gradual unfolding of these properties over time, and the contribution of environmental influences is very limited. Biogenetic approaches were often the theoretical basis of racist teachings about the initial differences between nations. A proponent of this approach was F. Galton, as well as the American psychologist, author of the theory of recapitulation Stanley Hall (1844-1924).

2. sociogenetic theories (sensualistic approach, postulates the primacy of experience) claim that at first the child’s psyche is a blank slate (tabula rasa), and all its achievements and characteristics are determined by external conditions (environment). A similar hypothesis was put forward by the English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704). These theories are more progressive, but their drawback is the understanding of the child as a primarily passive being, an object of influence.

3. Two-factor theory (convergence of two factors) postulates that development is the result of the interaction of innate structures and external influences. Karl Bühler (1879-1963), W. Stern, A. Binet believed that the influence of the environment is superimposed on factors of heredity. The founder of the two-factor theory, V. Stern, noted that it is impossible to say about any function whether it is “from the outside” or “from the inside.” We must be interested in what is “outside” and “inside” in it. However, even within the two-factor theory, the child is considered a passive object of influence.

4. The doctrine of higher mental functions (cultural-historical approach) of Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) asserts that the development of individuality is possible thanks to the existence of culture - the generalized experience of humanity. The innate properties of a person constitute the conditions for development, and the environment is the source (since it contains what a person must master). Higher mental functions, which are characteristic only of man, indirect by sign systems and objective activity, are the content of culture. In order for a child to learn it, it is necessary that she enter into a special relationship with the world around her: she does not adapt, but actively appropriates the experience of previous generations in the process of joint activity and communication with adults, that is, bearers of culture.

Swiss psychologist Carl-Gustav Jung (1875-1961) proved that culture is also a source of stable behavioral manifestations, fixed in the collective unconscious in the form of archetypes, but their preservation and manifestation cannot be proven by natural scientific methods.

The role of heredity and environment is attempted to be determined by the genetics of quantitative traits, which analyzes various types of dispersion of trait values. However, not every simple trait is fixed by one gene (a pair of genes, including a dominant and a recessive one). In addition, the complex effect cannot be considered as the arithmetic sum of the effect of each of the genes, because they interact with each other, causing systemic effects. Therefore, by studying the process of genetic control of a psychological trait, psychogenetics seeks to find answers to the following questions: to what extent does the genotype determine the formation of individual differences (i.e., what is the expected degree of variability) and the biological mechanism of its influence (the corresponding genes are localized on a section of the chromosome); the processes combine the protein product genes and specific phenotype; There are environmental factors that change the genetic mechanism being studied.

Heredity traits recognized by the presence of a correlation between the indicators of biological parents and children, and not by the similarity of indicators. For example, the temperaments of birth parents and their adopted children have much in common. Most likely, in adoptive families, children will be influenced by environmental conditions, as a result of which, in absolute terms, they will become similar to their adoptive parents. However, there will be no correlation.

Numerous studies devoted to identifying the sources of individual variations, as a rule, do not allow an unambiguous assessment of the role of environment or heredity. For example, thanks to the psychogenetic research of F. Galton, carried out in the 20s of the 20th century. using the twin method, it was found that biologically determined characteristics (skull size, other characteristics) are determined genetically, and psychological qualities (intelligence quotient according to various tests) give a wide spread and are determined by the environment. They are influenced by the social and economic status of the family, birth order, etc.

At the moment, exposure and identification models of environmental influences on intellectual abilities have spread. According to Robert Zajonc's (b. 1923) exposure model, the more time parents and children spend together, the higher the IQ correlation with the older relative. That is, in terms of intellectual abilities, the child is similar to the one who has been raising him longer, and if for some reason the parents devote little time to her, she will be similar to the nanny or grandmother. According to the identification model, the highest correlation is observed between the child and the relative who is the subject of Her identification. That is, intellectual authority can influence him even remotely, and regular joint activity is not necessary. The almost equal popularity of two models that contradict each other indicates that most differential psychological theories are limited.

INFLUENCE OF HEREDITARY AND ENVIRONMENT ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT

HeredityIt is commonly called the transfer of parental characteristics to children. Some hereditary qualities (nose shape, hair color, eyes, facial contours, ear for music, singing voice, etc.) do not require the use of any instruments to be recorded, others associated with the cytoplasm and nuclear DNA (metabolism, blood type, completeness of the set of chromosomes, etc.), require quite complex studies.

Heredity is the ability of living organisms to accumulate, store and transmit hereditary information to offspring. The transmission and storage of hereditary characteristics is ensured by DNA and RNA. DNA plays a leading role in the transmission of hereditary information. The large length of the DNA molecule makes it possible to “write” certain information.

Each child has an individual genetically based development program.

Timely identification of inherited characteristics in children makes it possible to send some children to special schools for the gifted, others to auxiliary schools. Children with mental and physical abnormalities (mentally retarded, deaf, blind) in auxiliary schools are introduced to socially useful work, master literacy and increase their intellectual development. Enormous merit in correcting unfavorable heredity in children belongs to oligophrenia, deafness and typhlopedagogy.

Qualified teachers in special schools improve the mathematical, musical and other abilities of children, which is associated with enormous work in their development. The teacher should know that parents often see extraordinary abilities in their child, although in fact he may have very modest abilities. For this reason, it is very important to promptly tell parents how to develop in their child that tendency that is revealed in him and which he must have inherited from his grandfathers, and not from his parents. This manifestation of abilities is associated with a feature of heredity: its long-term stability, when traits are transmitted over many generations and do not always appear in the first generations (this is the so-called recessive heredity).

From a pedagogical point of view, there are 3 main problems of interest:

1. Inheritance of intellectual qualities .

Children do not inherit ready-made abilities for a certain type of activity, but only inclinations - potential opportunities for the development of abilities. At the same time, the existing differences in the types of higher nervous activity change only the course of thought processes, but do not predetermine the quality and level of intellectual activity itself. The inclinations inherited by a person are realized or not realized based on circumstances (living conditions, environment, needs of society, demand for the product of any human activity). Educators around the world recognize that there is heredity that is unfavorable for the development of intellectual abilities (sluggish cells of the cerebral cortex in children of alcoholics, disrupted genetic structures in drug addicts, hereditary mental illnesses). Modern pedagogy places the emphasis not on identifying differences and adapting education to them, but on creating equal conditions for the development of the inclinations that each person has for the development of his mental powers.

2. Inheritance of special qualities.

Special abilities are called inclinations for a certain type of activity (musical inclinations, artistic, mathematical, linguistic, sports, etc.). It has been established that children with special inclinations achieve significantly higher results and advance in their chosen field of activity at a rapid pace. When such inclinations are strongly expressed, they manifest themselves at an early age, if the person is provided with the necessary conditions.

3. Inheritance of moral qualities.

For a long time, the leading position of Russian pedagogy was the assertion that all mental qualities of an individual are not inherited, but acquired in the process of interaction of the organism with the external environment. It was believed that a child is born neither evil nor good, that is, a person’s genetic programs do not contain information about social behavior (the soul of a newborn is a “blank slate.”) Indeed, when deciphering genetic programs, scientists did not find any genes for good or evil, no genes for aggression or submissiveness, nor other genes involved in morality.

At the same time, in Western pedagogy (M. Montessori, K. Lorenz, E. Fromm, etc.) the dominant assertion is that human moral qualities are biologically determined, that is, people are born good or evil, nature gives a person aggressiveness and cruelty. Such conclusions are made based on the recognition of the presence of instincts (instincts are inherited) and reflexes in animals and people, that is, human behavior is recognized as instinctive, reflexive. Academician P.K. Anokhin, N.M. Amosov and others openly speak out in favor of the hereditary conditioning of human morality and his social behavior.scientists, pointing out that man as a biological species has undergone very minor changes throughout the entire history of his existence known to people, this is proof of the immutability of human nature. The question of the inheritance of moral qualities is still open and complex.

At the same time, the development of the child and the implementation of the genetic program occurs in specific environmental conditions. Environmental factors, based on their nature, strength and duration of action, can contribute to going beyond the boundaries of the individual development program. The age period is of great importance, since each period has different sensitivity to environmental factors.

All environmental factors can be divided into 3 groups:

Inorganic (temperature, light, partial pressure of gases in the inhaled air, radiation level, etc.);

Organic (effects exerted on the child’s body by other living beings);

Social (impacts exerted on the child by family members, which, in turn, are determined by the way of life, traditions, social guidelines, material wealth of the family, etc.).

Social factors also include the microclimate that is created around the child in children's institutions, educational institutions, and then in work groups.

When analyzing the influence of factors of the first group on growth and development, in particular, the influence of high or low environmental temperature, one should refer to the rules of Bergman and Allen. Bergmann's rule states that within a warm-blooded species, the body size of the subspecies generally increases as the ambient temperature decreases. Allen's rule states that in warm-blooded animals of the same species, there is a tendency for the relative size of highly protruding body parts to increase with increasing ambient temperature. Those. in persons living in conditions of high average annual temperature, there is a predominance of the length of the limbs over the length of the body. At the same time, people living in low temperature conditions have a large weight with a powerful torso and relatively short limbs.

The social factor plays a big role.A child may have genetically determined musical abilities. But the lack of necessary conditions does not allow these abilities to develop. Or, a discrepancy between the social guidelines of the parents and the social guidelines of the child may be the reason for stopping attending the sports section.

Low financial security of the family is the cause of malnutrition, poor living conditions and, as a consequence, a lag in the physical development of the child. The microclimate in the family plays a huge role. Raising a child in a state of emotional discomfort (conflicts in the family, lack of parental affection and care) inhibits his development. This phenomenon is called psychosocial short stature, or deficiency of maternal affection. This is most clearly manifested in orphans.

Most domestic physiologists tend to believe that physical exercise stimulates skeletal growth, both in length and width. Along with this, a huge amount of material has been accumulated in the literature about the negative impact of intense physical activity on the growing skeleton. Research shows that with earlier intensive training activities, children are more likely to develop chronic joint diseases that are difficult to treat. Only a rational physical education program in combination with other favorable factors (good nutrition, good social conditions, etc.) are natural growth stimulants.

Educators around the world recognize the enormous importance of the environment, however, when assessing the degree of influence of the environment, the views of teachers do not coincide, since there is no abstract environment - there is a specific social system, specific living conditions of a person, his family, school, friends. When teachers talk about the influence of the environment, they mean, first of all, the social and home environment.

The home environment has a huge impact on human development, especially in childhood. The family largely determines the range of interests and needs, views and value orientations of the child; the family provides conditions (including material) for the development of the child’s natural inclinations; The moral and social qualities of the individual are laid in the family. The crisis of the modern family (an increase in the number of divorces, single-parent families, an increase in the number of socially disadvantaged children) is, according to experts, the root cause of the increase in crime among minors - a significant number of offenses in the country are committed by teenagers and young people aged 14-18 years.

Human development cannot be adequately assessed without taking into account the environment in which he lives, is brought up, works, without taking into account those with whom he communicates, and the functions of his body - without taking into account the hygienic requirements for the workplace, home environment, without taking into account human relationships with plants, animals, etc.

The genetic potential of a person is limited in time, and quite strictly. If you miss the deadline for early socialization, it will fade away before it has time to be realized. A striking example of this statement are the numerous cases when infants, by force of circumstances, ended up in the jungle and spent several years among animals. After their return to the human community, they could no longer fully catch up with what they had lost: master speech, acquire quite complex skills of human activity, their mental functions of a person developed poorly. This is evidence that the characteristic features of human behavior and activity are acquired only through social inheritance, only through the transmission of a social program in the process of upbringing and training.

To understand the role of heredity and environment in human ontogenesis, concepts such as “genotype” and “phenotype” are important.

The genotype is the hereditary basis of an organism, a set of genes localized in its chromosomes, this is the genetic constitution that the organism receives from its parents.

Phenotype is the totality of all properties and characteristics of an organism formed in the process of its individual development. The phenotype is determined by the interaction of the organism with the environmental conditions in which its development occurs. Unlike the genotype, the phenotype changes throughout the life of the organism and depends on the genotype and environment. Identical genotypes (in identical twins), when placed in different environments, can produce different phenotypes. Taking into account all the influencing factors, the human phenotype can be represented as consisting of several elements. These include: biological inclinations, encoded in genes; environment (social and natural); individual activity; mind (consciousness, thinking).

The interaction of heredity and environment in human development plays an important role throughout his life. But it acquires particular importance during the periods of formation of the body: embryonic, breast, childhood, adolescence and youth. It is at this time that an intensive process of development of the body and formation of personality is observed.

Heredity determines what an organism can become, but a person develops under the simultaneous influence of both factors - heredity and environment. Today it is becoming generally accepted that human adaptation is carried out under the influence of two programs of heredity: biological and social. All signs and properties of any individual are the result of the interaction of his genotype and environment. Therefore, each person is both a part of nature and a product of social development.

Age-related indicators of growth and development of an organism - its phenotype - are an alloy of congenital and acquired characteristics. On the one hand, they are determined by hereditary factors - genotype, which must be taken into account in sports selection and predicting sports talent. On the other hand, the development of an organism is determined by the influences of the external environment. For a person, the most important influences are the influences of the social environment - upbringing, education, sports training, vocational training, etc., which determines the acquired traits of growth and development.

Determination of the degree of hereditary influences is carried out by studying pedigrees (genealogical method), cytogenetic method (analysis of hereditary material of cells), population method (study of congenital changes in the body in isolated population groups - on individual islands, in hard-to-reach forests, mountains, etc.), as well as twin method. Thus, using the genealogical method, the preservation in portraits over several centuries of the typical facial structure of the owners of family castles - the “Habsburg nose and lip” - was traced. The study of congenital pathologies using this method revealed the genetic

the nature of almost 4 thousand diseases. One such example is hemophilia - the inability of blood to clot, as a result of which a person can die from the slightest scratch due to bleeding. The pathological gene is transmitted through the body of women, but men suffer from hemophilia. In particular, it is known that the son of the last Russian Emperor Nicholas II, Tsarevich Alexei, inherited this disease from the English Queen Victoria - his great-grandmother, like many of her male descendants in various European countries. In sports families, according to O. Astrand, motorically gifted children are observed quite often (in 50% of cases) (and if both parents are athletes, then in 70% of cases). However, as evidenced by tens of thousands of observations, athletic talent is not determined by a single gene, but is the result of the action of a complex of genes.

The correlation between the motor abilities of children and their parents, studied in English colleges for selected families using archival data, showed that at the age of 12 it is not always possible to identify a significant correlation between ancestors and descendants. For body length indicators

(r = 0.5), standing long jump results (r = 0.71) and 50-yard sprint (r = 0.48) correlation is significant, but it is absent for the results of throwing a tennis ball and gymnastic exercises.

It could be concluded that only certain motor abilities are inherited.

Special studies of intrafamily similarity have shown that the number of children in the family, the predominance of boys or girls among them, and even the order of birth of the child in the family are important for the inheritance of athletically important inclinations. It was found that future athletes should be looked for mainly in families with two or three children, giving preference not to older but to younger children, and also taking into account that in male athletes motor abilities are undoubtedly transmitted through the male line, while in female athletes, Unlike this, it is predominantly through the female line.

When using the twin method, the hereditary characteristics of identical (monozygotic) twins, who have almost the same heredity, are compared, and fraternal twins (heterozygous or dizygotic), whose phenotype is much more influenced by the external environment. It is known that identical twins have the same gender, the same fingerprints, the same blood group, their tissues are not rejected during transplants, they not only have a great similarity in appearance, but also in character.

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Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Municipal budgetary educational institution

Volzhsky Institute of Economics, Pedagogy and Law

Course work

Topic: “The role of heredity and environment in human development”

Rodnyanskaya M. S.

Volzhsky, 2013

Introduction

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The relevance of studying this problem is due to the fact that at the present stage of development of psychological and pedagogical research and within the framework of studying our topic, there is an urgent practical need to substantiate the role of the environment and heredity in the formation of personality. Human development is the process of formation and formation of his personality under the influence of external and internal, controlled and uncontrollable factors. Development is the process of physical, mental and moral growth of a person and covers all quantitative and qualitative changes in congenital and acquired properties. Human development as a process of physical, mental and moral maturation, in essence, means the transformation of a child, a biological individual with the inclinations of a person as a representative of a biological species, into a person as an individual, a member of human society. Human development cannot be reduced only to a quantitative change in the characteristics inherited and inherent in it from birth. Development is, first of all, qualitative changes in the human body and psyche. These changes occur under the conditions of a certain home and social environment and the influence of the people around him. In the process of development, a person is involved in various types of activities, showing his inherent activity in play, work, and learning. This activity enriches his life experience, brings him into contact with different people, communication with whom also contributes to his development and acquisition of experience in social contacts. The driving forces of human development are the contradictions between human needs that arise under the influence of objective factors, ranging from simple physical, material needs to higher spiritual ones, and the means and possibilities of satisfying them. These needs create motives for one or another type of activity aimed at satisfying them, encourage communication with people, and search for means and sources to satisfy their needs. Internal discrepancy (intrapersonal, that is, in the space of personal meanings), the inability to constructively resolve contradictions creates a multi-layered, multifaceted, unpredictable personality, tormented by indecision or subsequent repentance, torn apart by contradictory drives that it is not able to reconcile and organize into a system.”

In psychological science, the category of personality is one of the basic categories and is studied by all social sciences. The formation of personality is not a simple concatenation of accidents, but a natural process of development. People have long sought to study these patterns and understand the nature of the development of the human psyche. A person is born into the world already a human being. The structure of the baby's body determines the possibility of walking upright, the structure of the brain - potentially developed intelligence, the structure of the hand - the prospect of using tools, etc., all this distinguishes him from a baby animal. The structure of a person’s personality is broader than the structure of his individuality, and always has a specific socio-historical content. You can understand what personality is through the study of real social connections and relationships into which a person enters. And, the first thing one is faced with when turning to study is the question of the relationship between the biological and the social in it.

In the history of psychology, there are various approaches to the study of the mental development of a person’s personality.

The biogenetic approach is determined by a biological, predominantly hereditary, factor. A person by nature has a predisposition not only to the peculiarities of the course of emotional reactions, the peculiarities of the pace of actions, but also to a certain set of motives.

The sociogenetic approach considers personality development as a result of the direct influences of the surrounding social environment. At the same time, the developing person’s own activity is ignored; he is assigned the passive role of a being who only adapts to the environment. But it remains unexplained why such different people sometimes grow up in the same social environment.

Thus, we can determine the topic of our research: “The role of environment and heredity in the formation of personality.”

Purpose of the work: to analyze the role of personality development and heredity.

The object of research is the process of personality development.

The subject of the study is heredity and environment in personality development.

Research objectives:

1. Consider the concept of personality.

2. Consider the basic concepts that influence personality development.

3. Study methods for studying heredity and environment.

Methodological basis:

Approaches to the study of environment and heredity (L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev, J. Piaget)

Research methods:

Theoretical (analysis of psychological and pedagogical literature, conclusions);

Theoretical significance: various approaches to the study of heredity and environment in human development are analyzed.

Chapter 1. The concepts of “development” and “personality”

Understanding the very concept of “personality” is essential for psychology. A person is not born as a person, does not receive biological guarantees of personal development, but becomes one in the process of development. Acquires speech, consciousness, skills and habits in handling things and people that make him a social being. In the process of development, a person reveals his internal properties, inherent in him by nature and formed in him by life and upbringing, that is, a person is a dual being, he is characterized by dualism, like everything in nature: biological and social.

Personality is awareness of oneself, the external world and place in it. This definition of personality was given by Hegel. And in modern psychology the following definition is considered the most successful: personality is an autonomous, self-organized system, distanced from society, the social essence of a person. Since a person’s personal qualities develop during his lifetime, let us reveal the essence of the concept of “development”.

Development occurs:

1. in the unity of the biological and social in man;

2. dialectical (the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative transformations of physical, mental and spiritual characteristics of the individual), development is uneven (each organ develops at its own pace), intense in childhood and adolescence, then slows down.

3. L. S. Vygotsky.//Collected. Works: in 6 volumes.

There are optimal periods for the formation of certain types of mental activity - sensitive periods. By resolving contradictions (between needs and possibilities for their satisfaction, the child’s capabilities and the requirements of society, between the goals that he sets for himself and the conditions for achieving them, etc.); through activity - play, study, work.

Development is determined by internal and external conditions. Environmental influences and upbringing refer to external factors of development, while natural inclinations and inclinations, as well as feelings and experiences of a person that arise under the influence of external influences (environment and upbringing), refer to internal factors. It is impossible to absolutize the influence of any one factor; a systematic approach is necessary.

1.1 The role of heredity in the formation of personality

personality heredity environment stern

Heredity is defined as a set of natural properties of an organism, transmitted from generation to generation, and as “the property of living systems to reproduce their organization, or, in other words, the property of living organisms to recreate their own kind in a series of generations.”

Heredity preserves man as a natural being, as a unique population (species) in the biological world. B.G. Ananyev, M. A. Dvoryashina, N. A.

From the moment of birth, the child inherits many innate properties and instincts that belong to the group of unconditioned reflexes (according to I.P. Pavlov): digestive, defensive (withdrawing hands from hot things, squinting in bright light), orienting (reaction to sound, light); programs the transfer of biochemical, physical qualities: physical appearance, hair color, physical data; blood type and Rh factor, the makings of abilities; programs the properties of the nervous system, properties of the visual organs (color blindness, special sensitivity, eye color), etc. The genetic program is embedded in the molecular structures of DNA. Biological processes are also indicated by the presence of hereditary diseases and various anomalies. These include schizophrenia, diabetes mellitus, and a number of endocrine disorders (dwarfism, etc.). Features of the course of mental processes, a predisposition to crime, sadism, suicidal behavior, etc. can also be inherited. But the genetic apparatus, like the entire human body, is not isolated from external influences, but is included in their diversity.

Violation of genetic inheritance can be caused by harsh working conditions, neuropsychic disorders, alcohol, smoking, medications, sound stress and much more. Modern science is searching for means of treating gene diseases and reducing their impact on personality development.

The indicator of human development is manifested through the integrated development of his abilities. There are general and special abilities.

General abilities determine a person’s success in various activities. These are “mental abilities, subtlety and accuracy of manual movements, developed memory, perfect speech and a number of others.”

Special abilities reveal the individuality of the individual and “determine a person’s success in specific types of activities, the implementation of which requires inclinations of a special kind and their development.”

L. S. Vygotsky // Collection. essays These include mathematical, musical, linguistic, literary, artistic and creative, technical, sports, organizational, economic, etc. General and special abilities can harmonize with each other, complement each other, compensate, strengthen and enrich each other.

The manifestation of hereditary is directly dependent on the external environment, living conditions and upbringing. Science has many facts about the life of young children with animals (the so-called “Mowgli’s children”) - wolves, bears, monkeys and fed with their milk. Returning to people, they were deprived of almost all human qualities: the level of intelligence and thinking of many of them is below the level of animals, they walked on all fours, there was no speech, they reproduced only the sounds that the animals “pronounced”; Such children are characterized by underdevelopment of feelings and a short life span due to underdevelopment of mental processes.

A biologically healthy person has enormous development opportunities, but practically realizes them by no more than 10-15%. For proper upbringing, a deep diagnosis of identifying natural talents is important in order to create the necessary conditions for their development. Human development is considered primarily as the development of his abilities.

On the one hand, development occurs due to the reserve forces of the genotype (the makings of abilities can manifest themselves very early, from 2-3 years of age, or vice versa - in old age), on the other hand, environmental conditions and their mutual influence. Imperfect nutritional structure and difficult living conditions (orphans, single-parent families, difficult families, involving children in hard work) retard growth and development. Hereditary possibilities

The qualities of a growing person are great, but he will be able to realize them as personality traits only in the process of his social life in society, in his activities. Yu. N. Karandashev Developmental Psychology: Part One: Introduction: Textbook. Minsk, 2000.

1.2 The role of the environment in the formation of personality

The most important aspect of a person’s mental development is the experience and knowledge he acquires during his life. Obviously, their volume and content will depend on the environment in which the individual is located and with which he actively interacts. The environment is considered as a set of conditions for the existence of living organisms and humans. The concept "environment" has many meanings. Let us dwell on their consideration, since at each unit of time a person is exposed to their influence.

Macro environment. Numerous observations, facts, and experiments have confirmed the influence of space, the special arrangement of stars, comets, the effects of magnetic storms on the Sun, changes in the phases of the Moon, lunar and solar eclipses, and the magnetic and gravitational fields of the Earth even at the level of intrauterine development, not to mention the born person.

The geographical environment - the history of the existence of the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, Greece, Rome reveals the fact that their centers were geographically and biologically extremely favorable territories (abundance of heat and light, water, flora and fauna), which contributed to the socialization of biological human properties. But even in the period of technological progress, many geographical areas are extremely difficult from the point of view of their influence on human development (zones of geological faults and earthquakes, areas of deserts and mountains, permafrost and excess humidity). Naturally, those living in such areas have limited access to intellectual sources, and the socialization of the individual is delayed.

Social environment is the totality of social relations that develop in society (way of life, traditions, “the social and living conditions surrounding a person, the environment, as well as the totality of people connected by the commonality of these conditions”), dominant social ideas and values.

The home environment is the cradle of the beginning of life, the environment of loved ones, material conditions; this is a whole world embodied in toys and games, its own living territory. The development of a child is ensured by friendship and love in parental relationships, relationships with family and friends. The child develops a need to communicate with others, which becomes the most important source of his diversified development.

The home and social environment can also have a negative impact: drinking and swearing in families, rudeness and ignorance, blatant humiliation of children, negative influence of comrades and friends, especially older people and adults; everything negative that happens around us.

The microenvironment is the features of an apartment or work space, microwaves and magnetic influences, vibrations, etc., namely the geometric shapes of the apartment, the height of the floor of the house, wall design, furniture arrangement, radiation from electrical appliances, biofield influences of plants and animals, individual people ( with negative bioenergy), etc. The results of science and technology can also have their own impact. Thus, Japanese scientists have found that listening to folk or classical music by pregnant women develops the intelligence of the unborn child, causes harmonic vibrations, which create conditions for increasing the flow of blood and nutrients, and have a beneficial effect on the development of nerve tissue and the brain.

In the scientific concepts of Western authors, there are interpretations about the primary role of the geographical environment. Peoples living in favorable geographical conditions in different historical periods “slowed down” the pace of their industrial and social development, consuming ready-made gifts of nature. The peoples of the northern territories, on the contrary, organized themselves, steeled themselves in the fight against harsh living conditions, and built up powerful intellectual and industrial potential. But the environment itself, in modern conditions, in the age of scientific and technological progress, cannot provide a solution to the personal development program and its adaptation to independent life and activity. To a large extent, social factors determine human development. According to K. Marx, the essence of man is an ensemble of social relations. But it should be remembered that a person is not formed passively under the influence of the environment. The social environment does not fundamentally affect the development of personality traits. It is well known that the same social conditions of life lead to different levels of moral, intellectual and spiritual development. This feature can be considered as a pattern in personality development. The development of social factors leads to a diversity of their impact on personality development. Factors of deliberate influence on a person can be the government system and politics, science, school, training and education, working and living conditions, family, culture and traditions, and much more. There is a group of social factors that do not have a total effect, but give a person the opportunity to develop: literature, art, media, technical and sports societies, various clubs, exhibitions, sections, etc. The degree of influence of factors will be determined by the capabilities and aspirations of the individual himself in their implementation. But the natural principle is always individual: the peculiarities of the course of mental processes, the makings of abilities, the degree of activity, etc. People themselves have different attitudes towards cognition and the acquisition of knowledge. Some people are passionate about sports, while others are contraindicated for health reasons. Naturally, their emerging qualities will be different. Thus, even the combined effect of these factors does not always ensure the formation of the necessary personality qualities. Among social factors, upbringing can be called special. It can be considered as a purposeful process of formation of specific qualities and properties of a person, his abilities, a process based on the laws of social development. Yu. N. Karandashev Developmental Psychology: Part One: Introduction: Textbook. Minsk, 2001.

Everything that a person possesses, how he differs from animals, is the result of his life in a social environment. It is characteristic that a child who has not absorbed the culture of society turns out to be unadapted to social life and cannot realize what is inherent in him by nature itself. Outside of society, a child does not become a person.

At the same time, it would be a clear simplification to think that a person is solely the result of socialization. In a certain sense, a person is already born as a person, crystallizing in himself everything that has been accumulated by all of humanity over the centuries. This crystallization also occurs through heredity. The child does not simply absorb the information given to him. He inherits the genetic stock of information through the specifically human structure of the body, brain, and inclinations. If a chimpanzee is placed in special conditions of social life from the first days of birth and surrounded with careful attention and care by the most talented teachers, then this animal will still remain only a well-trained monkey. She has a different heredity, a different brain, separating monkeys from humans by an impassable line. In other words, the emergence of work, society and the psyche unique to humans - consciousness - was accompanied by important changes in the structure and activity of the brain and the entire nervous system, and vice versa. However, the characteristics of the human brain and nervous system are only a necessary condition, or, more precisely, a biological prerequisite for the formation of consciousness, but not consciousness as such. Actually, human consciousness is formed only in interaction and communication with other people, i.e. in a social context. Different living conditions of people and upbringing, belonging to different social groups, interaction and struggle of their interests develop and shape different consciousness. In this sense, consciousness as the highest form of mental activity is not identical to thinking. B. G. Ananiev Man as an object of knowledge L.: Leningrad State Technical University 2000.

Human consciousness changes not only from era to era, it can change throughout the life of the same person depending on the characteristics of the social relations in which he is included (he can be religious at one time, an atheist at another, an adherent of one view, another - of another, etc.). Let's give a historical example: a child from an African tribe ends up in Paris and is raised there, grows up to be an educated person, a true Parisian. Thus, the development of new subject-object relations is manifested and realized in new social roles of the individual, which are gradually personified and transformed into his personal properties: character traits, abilities, etc. Already in the works of I.P. Pavlov was inspired by the idea of the plasticity of the nervous system, its adaptability to education in different environmental conditions, as well as the great compensatory capabilities of the body, i.e. the ability to compensate for a number of functions by other organs due to injuries, illnesses, etc. All of the above makes it possible to talk about the influence of social factors on the development of personality as a priority.

1.3 The problem of the influence of environment and heredity on personality development

At the end of the 20th, the discussion about the relationship between “environmental” and “hereditary” factors was transferred to the plane of experimental research, in particular research into the problem of stability and variability of human properties in changing situations. There are two most common versions of two-factor theories, or, as they are sometimes called, “concepts of double determination of development” of a person’s personality: the theory of convergence of two factors (V. Stern) and the theory of confrontation of two factors (S. Freud).

I would like to note the theory of V. Stern, who wrote that the concept represents a compromise between theories of the “environment” and theories. G. Craig Developmental Psychology. St. Petersburg, Publishing House “Peter”, 2000. “heredity”: “If each of two opposing points of view can be based on serious grounds, then the truth must lie in the combination of both of them: mental development is not a simple reproduction of innate properties, but also not a simple perception of external influences, but the result of the convergence of internal data with external conditions of development. This “convergence” is valid both for basic features and for individual developmental phenomena. You cannot ask about any function, about any property: “Does it occur from the outside or from the inside?”, but you need to ask: “What happens in it from the outside? What's inside? Since both take part - only unequally in different cases - in its implementation.” In other words, V. Stern believes that personality is both a product of the social environment, that is, a social factor, and hereditary dispositions that a person receives from birth, that is, a biological factor. The social factor (environment) and the biological factor (disposition of the body) lead to the emergence of a new state of personality. Subsequently, G. Allport specifically emphasized that the scheme or principle of “convergence” proposed by V. Stern is not a strictly psychological principle, but the interaction of the forces of the “environment” and the “forces” emanating from the body is an expression of the dialectical relationship between the organism and the environment.

The convergence scheme proposed by the philosopher and psychologist V. Stern is by its nature a methodological scheme that goes beyond the scope of psychology. Discussions about the relationship between the biological and the social, which lasted more than a hundred years after the identification of the scheme of “convergence” of two factors (“forces”), relied on this scheme as a matter of course. But A.N. Leontyev warned against frivolous “pseudo-dialectics”, which is backed by the eclectic position recognized by V. Stern himself, the original dualism of the mechanistically complex biological and social in human life. And in another theory, the question was raised about the determination of personality development and the question about the interaction of the biological and the social, is the theory of confrontation of two factors, their confrontation. This theory appeared in psychoanalysis (Z. Freud), and then in individual psychology (A. Adler), analytical psychology (K. Jung), as well as many representatives of neo-Freudianism ( E.Fromm, K.Hornii etc.). In a less explicit form, the idea of a conflict between the biological and the social has appeared in most areas of personality research in modern psychology.

So, we can conclude that human development is a very complex process. It occurs under the influence of both external influences and internal forces that are characteristic of man, as of any living and growing organism. External factors include, first of all, the natural and social environment surrounding a person, as well as special, purposeful activities to develop certain personality traits in children; to internal - biological, hereditary factors. Factors influencing human development can be controllable and uncontrollable. The development of a child - not only a complex, but also a contradictory process - means his transformation as a biological individual into a social being - a personality.

In the process of development, the child is involved in various types of activities (play, work, study, sports, etc.) and enters into communication (with parents, peers, strangers) while showing his inherent activity. This helps him acquire certain social experience. The interaction of heredity and environment in human development plays an important role throughout his life. But it acquires particular importance during the periods of formation of the body: embryonic, breast, childhood, adolescence and youth. It is at this time that an intensive process of development of the body and formation of personality is observed. Heredity determines what an organism can become, but a person develops under the simultaneous influence of both factors - heredity and environment.

Today it is becoming generally accepted that human adaptation is carried out under the influence of two programs of heredity: biological and social. All signs and properties of any individual are the result of the interaction of his genotype and environment. Therefore, each person is both a part of nature and a product of social development.

Most scientists today agree with this position. Disagreement arises when it comes to the role of heredity and environment in the study of human mental abilities. Some believe that mental abilities are inherited genetically, others say that the development of mental abilities is determined by the influence of the social environment.

Chapter 2. Methods for studying heredity

According to the laws of inheritance, all the main characteristics and properties of organisms are controlled and determined by units of hereditary information - genes, localized in specific cell structures - chromosomes. The substance in which hereditary information is “recorded”, in the vast majority of organisms, is nucleic acids - deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and in some viruses, ribonucleic acid (RNA). The subject of genetics research is the nature of the material carriers of heredity, the mechanisms of their manifestation, change and reproduction, possible ways and methods of their artificial synthesis, the formation of complex properties and characteristics of an entire organism, the relationship of heredity and variability, selection and evolution. The study of heredity and variability using genetic methods is carried out at all levels of organization of living matter: molecular, cellular, at the level of an entire organism and population (a set of individuals of the same species that occupies a certain space for a long time and reproduces itself in many generations). Modern genetics, guided by the principles of community in the organization of all living things, interacts dialectically with physics, chemistry, mathematics and other natural sciences, and is the basis of modern biology. Methods for studying human genetics, the dependence of their use on biological, psychological and social characteristics (late appearance of offspring, their small number, inapplicability of the method of hybridological analysis).

“For every science, sooner or later there comes a moment when it must realize itself as a whole, comprehend its methods and shift attention from facts and phenomena to the concepts it uses,” wrote L.S. Vygotsky. Summing up, as a rule, occurs at special moments in history. The end of the millennium is marked by the centenary anniversaries of two outstanding psychologists of the 20th century. L.S. Vygotsky and J. Piaget, scientists of different worldviews, representatives of different national cultures, different social systems, who have created authoritative scientific schools, between whom there are ongoing discussions regarding the ways and internal mechanisms of child development. The clash of opinions in these discussions, which can be called unfinished, is determined by two different paradigms, identified and clarified through the analysis of the most representative concepts of both Western and Russian psychology. Each of them has gone through a long development path.

For L.S. For Vygotsky, important questions were: how does a person in his development go beyond the limits of his “animal” nature? How does he develop as a cultural and working being in the process of his social life? According to L.S. Vygotsky, man, in the process of historical development, has risen to the point of creating new driving forces of his behavior. Only in the process of social life did new human needs arise and develop, and his natural needs underwent profound changes.

The most famous Western concepts of child development before and after L.S. Vygotsky described this process from the position of the natural science paradigm as a transition from an individual humanoid state to social existence. Therefore, it is not surprising that the main problem of all foreign psychology without exception still remains the problem of socialization. L.S. Vygotsky categorically opposed such an interpretation. For him, the development process goes from social to individual: higher mental functions arise initially as a form of collective behavior, as a form of cooperation with other people, and only subsequently do they become individual functions of the child himself. Conditions of development, according to the natural science paradigm, heredity and environment. Conditions for development in the cultural-historical paradigm are morphophysiological characteristics of the brain and communication (these ideas of L.S. Vygotsky were developed by A.N. Leontyev).

Western psychologists look for the source of development within the individual, in his nature. In the cultural-historical paradigm, the environment acts as a source of development of higher mental functions. In this sense, a person is a social being; without interaction with society, he will never develop in himself those qualities that arose as a result of the development of all humanity. Attitudes towards the environment change with age, and therefore the role of the environment in development also changes. Its influence is determined by the child’s key experiences. As L.I. rightly pointed out. Bozhovich, experience is like a knot in which the diverse influences of various external and internal circumstances are tied. The main feature of naturalistic concepts is the understanding of the form of development as an adaptation, adaptation of the child to his environment. According to L.S. Vygotsky, the mental development of a child occurs through the appropriation of historically developed forms and methods of activity. In contrast, the biological type of development occurs in the process of adaptation to nature, by inheriting the properties of the species or by accumulating individual experience.

The specificity of child development is that it is not subject to biological laws, like in animals. It is subject to the action of socio-historical laws. The content of a child’s development and the duration of childhood depend on the level of development of society. As L.S. wrote Vygotsky, “there is no eternally childish, but there is something historically childish,” and in a class society childhood has a very definite class meaning.

According to L.S. Vygotsky, the driving force of mental development is learning. It is important to note that development and learning are different processes. The development process has internal laws of self-motion. Education is an internally necessary and universal moment in the process of development in a child of properties historically inherent in man. Learning is not identical to development: it creates a zone of proximal development, i.e. brings to life in the child, awakens and sets in motion internal processes of development, which at first are possible for the child only in the sphere of relationships with adults and cooperation with peers. The zone of proximal development is a logical consequence of the law of formation of higher mental functions. When a mental process is formed in joint activity, it is in the zone of proximal development; after formation, it becomes a form of the actual development of the child himself. The concept of the zone of proximal development has important theoretical significance and is associated with such fundamental problems of child and educational psychology as the emergence and development of higher mental processes, the relationship between learning and development, driving forces and mechanisms of mental development. This concept is of great practical importance for resolving the issue of optimal periods of education, which is especially important both for the mass of children and for each individual child. The zone of proximal development is a criterion in the diagnosis of mental development. Reflecting the area of processes that have not yet matured, but are maturing, the zone of proximal development gives an idea of the internal state and potential capabilities of the child and, on this basis, allows one to make a scientifically based forecast and give practical recommendations.

The problem of “training and development” has become a central problem for L.S. Vygotsky and his followers for many years. It was necessary to understand: what kind of learning influences development? What is “good” teaching? what is the mechanism of influence of training on development? One of the options for solving the problem of the influence of training on mental development is the hypothesis of L.S. Vygotsky about the systemic and semantic structure of consciousness and its development in ontogenesis. Putting forward this idea, L.S. Vygotsky strongly opposed the functionalism of contemporary psychology. He believed that human consciousness is not the sum of individual processes, but their system, structure. No function develops in isolation. The development of each depends on what structure they belong to and what place they occupy in it. Thus, at an early age, perception is at the center of consciousness, in preschool memory, in school thinking. All other mental processes develop at each age under the influence of the dominant function in consciousness. According to L.S. Vygotsky, the process of mental development consists of a restructuring of the systemic structure of consciousness, which is caused by a change in its semantic structure, i.e. level of development of generalizations: “Entry into consciousness is possible only through speech.” And the transition from one structure of consciousness to another is carried out thanks to the development of the meaning of the word, in other words, generalization. If training does not have a direct impact on the systemic structure of consciousness, then the development of generalization and, consequently, changes in the semantic structure of consciousness can be directly controlled. During training, as a result of the formation of a generalization, the entire system of consciousness is rebuilt. Therefore, according to L.S. Vygotsky, one step in learning can mean a hundred steps in development.

It is known that representatives of different approaches had different understandings of the essence of mental development. Proponents of the idealistic, introspective approach took the self-contained mental world as their starting point; representatives of behavioral psychology understood the development of the psyche, according to M.G. Yaroshevsky, “as filling an initially “empty” organism with skills, associations, etc. under the influence of environmental conditions." Piaget rejected both of these approaches, both genetically and functionally, i.e. in relation to consciousness, mental life of an adult.

According to Piaget, in the course of ontogenetic development, the external world begins to appear to the child in the form of objects not immediately, but as a result of active interaction with him. In the course of an increasingly complete and deep interaction between the subject and the object, as the author believed, their mutual enrichment occurs: more and more new aspects and characteristics are identified in the object, and the subject develops more and more adequate, subtle and complex ways of influencing the world in order to knowledge and achievement of consciously set goals.

Piaget's main task was to study the structure of human intelligence. He viewed its structure as a natural development during the evolution of less organized organic structures. However, J. Piaget's psychological views were formed on the basis of a general biological understanding of the development process as a relationship between assimilation and accommodation. During assimilation, the organism, as it were, imposes its own patterns of behavior on the environment; during accommodation, it rearranges them in accordance with the characteristics of the environment. In this regard, the development of intelligence was thought of as a unity of assimilation and accommodation, because through these acts the organism adapts to its environment.

When studying intelligence, Piaget used the so-called slice method: he presented children of different ages with the same problem and compared the results of solving it. This method made it possible to detect certain shifts in the child’s intellectual activity and to see in the previous stage the emergence of prerequisites and some elements of the subsequent stage. However, this method could not ensure the disclosure of the child’s psychological formation of a new intellectual technique, concept, knowledge.

The main drawback of Piaget's concept was that, ignoring the development of the child's holistic personality, he saw the main driving force for the development of intelligence in the intellect itself. Among the factors for the development of intelligence, Piaget does not include such a factor as activity. Piaget's concept convincingly proved that the origins, the beginnings of higher levels of thinking mature within the previous ones. However, as the works of domestic authors prove, the transition to higher genetic stages is expressed not only in the development of new types of thinking, but also in the change of all those that arose at the previous stages. It is not thinking in itself that develops, but a person, and as he rises to a higher level, all aspects of his consciousness, all aspects of his thinking rise to this higher level. And finally, Piaget underestimated the role of learning as the most important condition for the transition from one level of intellectual development to another. Numerous studies carried out by domestic psychologists have proven that the development of children's thinking is determined by a properly organized educational system.

The central problem of all foreign psychology without exception still remains the problem of socialization, the problem of the transition from biological existence to life as a socialized individual. The conditions for development, from the point of view of most Western psychology, are heredity and environment. They look for the source of development within the individual, in his nature. However, the main feature of all concepts is the understanding of development as a person’s adaptation to his environment.

Thus, research by psychologists has discovered the role of a child’s activity in his mental development. And this was a way out of the impasse of the problem of two factors. The development process is the self-movement of the subject due to his activity with objects, and the facts of heredity and environment are only conditions that do not determine the essence of the development process, but only various variations within the norm.

Conclusion

Human development is an uneven process of formation of various mental functions, abilities, formation of character and personality. In this process, it is important to take into account both the genetic capabilities of the person and the influences of the environment, society and culture. Genetics is only a possibility that is realized in a specific environment. Therefore, a genetic predisposition to certain developmental disorders is only a possibility that may or may not be realized.

Environment and heredity should not be considered as two forces acting on the individual independently of each other. Development is a process in which the social and biological are dialectical and inseparable. Man is a creature living in a man-made environment; it is inextricably linked with this environment; there is no doubt that genetically we are given some inclinations, but there can be no talk of their independent self-development, independent of the environment, in a predetermined direction. Hereditarily determined human inclinations continuously change and transform in the process of social development. But acquired qualities are also built on a well-known biological basis, without which development would be unthinkable. The biological in its original form ceases to exist, it is subordinated to the social, changed by it, and it is not possible to isolate it “in its pure form.” Likewise, the influence of the environment is not simple, mechanical stratification. The environment guides development, but the same environment influences differently, depending on how a person perceives it and how he acts.

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